boarding schools (pesantren) sprang up in cities and townsacross the c terjemahan - boarding schools (pesantren) sprang up in cities and townsacross the c Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

boarding schools (pesantren) sprang

boarding schools (pesantren) sprang up in cities and towns
across the country. In a few places, the militants got into pitched street
fights with Christians, democracy activists, and the local police. Several
dozen Islamic boarding schools also initiated campaigns to dispatch
mujahidin fighters from Java and Sumatra to the eastern Indonesian
provinces of Maluku and north Maluku, where, from 1999 to 2003,
almost ten thousand people died in fierce Christian-Muslim violence.3
56 ROBERT W. HEFNER
Concerns about the political disposition of the country’s Islamic
schools were further heightened with the 2002 bombings of a beachfront
pub in south Bali, in which more than two hundred people
perished, most of them Western tourists. The youths eventually convicted
of the attack were members of the terrorist Jemaah Islamiyah
and were discovered to have ties to an Islamic boarding school in
Lamongan, East Java. Several of that school’s administrators were, in
turn, found to be former students of Abu Bakar Ba‘asyir, the director
of the al-Mukmin boarding school in south-central Java, and a man
widely regarded as having been the leader of the Jemaah Islamiyah
(JI). In October 2005, suicide bombers with ties to the JI launched
three bomb attacks on tourist sites in south Bali, killing twenty-five
people, most of them Indonesians.
Some Western observers saw these incidents as proof that at
least some among Indonesia’s Islamic schools had become training
camps for al-Qa‘ida militants intent on opening a “second front”
against Western interests.4 It was not just Western analysts, however,
who harbored these concerns. A few days after the second Bali
bombing, the Indonesian vice president, Jusuf Kalla, blamed the attack
on individuals from an Islamic boarding school, which he declined to
identify by name. The vice president emphasized that the government
understood that the great majority of Islamic schools have nothing to
do with terrorism. Nonetheless, he insisted, it was obliged to carry out
heightened surveillance of the few schools inclined toward “irresponsible”
behavior. A few days later, Kalla startled Muslim educators further
by his announcement that the government planned to fingerprint all
boarding school students (santri). Kalla’s declaration was greeted with
a storm of protest as well as a terse disclaimer from the national chief
of police, who made it clear that his department had no intention of
fingerprinting santri.5
The chief’s opposition to fingerprinting notwithstanding, in the
weeks following the second Bali bombing, police blanketed neighborhoods
and towns across Indonesia with banners calling for citizens to
report any activity that might be linked to terrorism. Those weeks also
witnessed a dramatic increase in Muslim scholars’ condemnation of
terrorist acts, statements interpreted by many observers as part of a
campaign to support the government’s efforts. The period also saw the
publication of books by prominent Muslim scholars emphasizing that
Schools, Social Movements & Democracy in Indonesia 57
a terrorist network exists in Indonesia and is a threat to Muslims and
Muslim schooling. Prior to this time, government officials and Muslim
leaders had hesitated to make such statements for fear of sounding
as if they were aligning themselves with the United States, whose
military actions in Afghanistan and Iraq were widely unpopular.6
As my research visits in December 2005, July–August 2006, and
December 2006 revealed, these efforts to isolate violent elements in
the Muslim community reverberated in even the most isolated Islamic
schools. Educators protested that their schools were being wrongly
singled out for blame. They reminded the public of the courageous role
that Islamic schools had played in Indonesia’s independence struggle;
the large number of pesantren- and madrasa-educated politicians active
in multireligious parties; and the pluralist commitments demonstrated
by Muslim students and teachers in the democracy struggles of the
1990s. Notwithstanding these protestations, the violent acts of a few
cast a shadow over the Islamic school system, raising questions, not
just about schools and politics, but about the place of Islamic education
in Indonesian society as a whole.
In this chapter, I want to step back from these events and examine
several trends in Indonesia’s Islamic schools. The schools with which I
am primarily concerned include the country’s 11,000 Islamic boarding
schools (pesantrens) and its 36,000 modern Islamic day schools (madrasas).
The madrasa wing of the network educates some 5.7 million
students or 13 percent of Indonesia’s primary and secondary school
student body. The pesantren wing educates an additional 2.9 million
students, most after they have completed primary or middle school. In
an earlier publication written with Azyumardi Azra and Dina Afrianty
from the Hidaytatullah State Islamic University in Jakarta, I provided
an overview of the development of Islamic education in this, the largest
Muslim-majority country in the world.7 That essay also discussed the
transformative role played by Islamic higher education in Indonesia’s
Muslim schools, so here I will touch only in passing on that segment of
the Islamic school system. The present chapter aims to go beyond the
earlier essay and address the question of how one of the most forwardlooking
Islamic educational systems in the world has also given rise
to a small but militant fringe. More generally, the chapter asks what
developments in the Islamic educational system imply for Indonesia’s
continuing transition from thirty-two years of authoritarian rule.
58 ROBERT W. HEFNER
I begin this chapter, then, with a brief overview of the variety
of Islamic schools in Indonesia. This section also addresses the question
of how it came to be that, unlike their counterparts in so many
Muslim nations, the majority of Islamic schools volunteered to open
their curricula to general or “secular” education in addition to religious
study. The chapter then turns to examine the recent appearance
of a new breed of Islamic schools of a “social-movement” nature. By
social-movement schools, I refer to educational institutions that aim,
not merely to impart knowledge and values to children, but to use the
networks and perceptual frames that religious education provides to
challenge the existing organization of state and society. As I explain,
with its appeal for a deeper Islamization of self and society, Islamic
education in Indonesia has long displayed some of the characteristics
that political sociologists identify with social movements. However,
it was only in the 1980s and 1990s that a significant number of
schools began to interpret this mission in an activist and nationally
organized way. A minority among a minority, only a tiny proportion
of the movement schools have in turn interpreted their activist mission
in a politically radical manner. However, the dedication and
militancy of these few schools have allowed them to exercise an
influence on Muslim politics—if not education—disproportionate
to their numbers in Indonesian society.
Meanwhile, as I discuss in the final section of this chapter, the
mainstream educational landscape has been swept by a development
that dwarfs the activities of the radical fringe. It is the fact that the
overwhelming majority of Muslim educators have concluded that constitutional
democracy is compatible with Islam, and is the best form
of government for Indonesia. This is a great transformation of Islamic
educational culture indeed. But the change has proved complicated.
Even as they say they subscribe to democratic values, most educators
also opine that divine law (shari‘a) should serve as the basis of the state.
As the concluding section of this chapter explains, the coexistence
of democratic and shari‘a-minded commitments in Muslim
educational circles is not as paradoxical as it first appears, since most
educators have an ethically abstract and procedurally gradualist understanding
of just how the law should be implemented. Nonetheless,
the interplay of democratic and shari‘a idealisms continues to
raise questions and generate tensions. My conclusion suggests that
Schools, Social Movements & Democracy in Indonesia 59
the primary question with which mainstream Muslim educators will
grapple in years to come is not radicalization, but how to balance the
ideals of democracy with the ethical imperatives of God’s law.
Varietie s of Islamic Educ ation
For the better part of a century, Islamic education in Indonesia
has had three primary institutional channels: (1) pengajian Qur’an,
basic instruction in learning to read and recite but not literally understand
the Qur’an; (2) study at a pesantren or pondok, an Islamic
boarding school for students aspiring to intermediate or advanced
facility in Islamic traditions of knowledge; and (3) enrollment in
a madrasa, a (in Indonesia) modern day school that uses graded
classes, textbooks, and salaried instructors to provide a mix of religious
and general education.
As elsewhere in Southeast Asia, pengajian Qur’an is the oldest
and most elementary form of Islamic schooling, and for most students
it remains the foundation on which their religious education is
built today. Often only lightly institutionalized, Qur’anic study usually
takes place, not in a freestanding school building, but in village
mosques, prayer houses (langgar, musholla), and the private homes
of community religious teachers. Classes are usually held in the late
afternoon or evening, at a time when young children of six to eleven
years of age are not otherwise busy attending a regular school. As this
staggered schedule suggests, Qur’anic study is not a substitute for
general education but a complement to it. This was not always the
case. In the nineteenth century, when only a few children of native
aristocrats and employees of Dutch estates were provided with a formal
education,
0/5000
Dari: -
Ke: -
Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1: [Salinan]
Disalin!
Pesantren (pesantren) bermunculan di kota-kotadi seluruh negeri. Di beberapa tempat, para militan masuk ke bernada streetperkelahian dengan orang Kristen, aktivis demokrasi, dan polisi setempat. Beberapalusin Pesantren juga memulai kampanye untuk pengirimanpejuang mujahidin dari Jawa dan Sumatra untuk Indonesia TimurProvinsi Maluku dan Maluku Utara dimana, dari tahun 1999 hingga 2003,hampir sepuluh ribu orang tewas dalam sengit Kristen-Muslim violence.356 ROBERT W. HEFNERKekhawatiran tentang disposisi politik negara Islamsekolah-sekolah yang lebih tinggi dengan pengeboman tahun 2002 pantaipub di Bali Selatan, di mana lebih dari dua ratus orang««tewas, kebanyakan dari mereka wisatawan Barat. Para pemuda yang akhirnya dihukumserangan adalah anggota teroris Jemaah Islamiyahdan ditemukan memiliki jalinan dengan pesantren diLamongan, Jawa Timur. Beberapa administrator sekolah itu adalah, dalamPutar, ditemukan mantan siswa dari Abu Bakar Ba'asyir, DirekturPesantren al-Mukmin di pulau Jawa bagian tengah, dan seorang priasecara luas dianggap sebagai pemimpin Jemaah Islamiyah(JI). Pada Oktober 2005, pembom bunuh diri dengan ikatan dengan JI diluncurkantiga bom serangan terhadap objek wisata di Bali Selatan, membunuh dua puluh limaorang, kebanyakan dari mereka Indonesia.Beberapa pengamat Barat melihat kejadian ini sebagai bukti bahwa padapaling tidak beberapa diantaranya sekolah Islam Indonesia telah menjadi pelatihankamp untuk militan Avtomat berniat membuka "second front"melawan interests.4 Barat itu tidak hanya Barat analis, namun,yang memendam keprihatinan ini. Beberapa hari setelah Bali keduapengeboman, Indonesia Wakil Presiden Jusuf Kalla, menyalahkan seranganpada individu-individu dari pesantren, yang ia menolak untukmengidentifikasi dengan nama. Wapres menekankan bahwa pemerintahdipahami bahwa sebagian besar sekolah Islam tidak adalakukan dengan terorisme. Meskipun demikian, dia bersikeras, itu diwajibkan melaksanakanmeningkatnya pengawasan dari sedikit sekolah cenderung "tidak bertanggung jawab"perilaku. Beberapa hari kemudian, Kalla kaget Muslim pendidik lebih lanjutoleh pengumuman bahwa pemerintah berencana untuk sidik jari semuasiswa sekolah asrama (santri). Deklarasi Kalla yang disambut denganBadai protes serta disclaimer singkat dari kepala Nasionalpolisi, yang membuat jelas bahwa pihaknya telah tidak berniatsidik jari santri.5Kepala oposisi terhadap sidik jari sekalipun, diminggu setelah pengeboman Bali kedua, polisi diselimuti KelurahanKota- kota di seluruh Indonesia dengan spanduk memanggil bagi warga negara untukLaporan aktivitas apapun yang mungkin terkait dengan terorisme. Mereka minggu jugamenyaksikan peningkatan dramatis dalam penghukuman cendekiawan Muslimbertindak teroris, pernyataan-pernyataan yang ditafsirkan oleh banyak pengamat sebagai bagian darikampanye untuk mendukung upaya pemerintah. Periode juga melihatpublikasi buku oleh sarjana-sarjana Muslim yang menonjol, menekankan bahwaSekolah, gerakan sosial & demokrasi di Indonesia 57jaringan teroris yang ada di Indonesia dan merupakan ancaman bagi Muslim danMuslim sekolah. Sebelum waktu ini, pejabat pemerintah dan Muslimpemimpin telah ragu-ragu untuk membuat pernyataan semacam itu karena takut terdengarseolah-olah mereka sedang menyelaraskan diri dengan Amerika Serikat, yangtindakan-tindakan militernya di Afghanistan dan Irak secara luas unpopular.6Sebagai penelitian saya kunjungan pada Desember 2005, bulan Juli-Agustus 2006, danMengungkapkan Desember 2006, upaya-upaya untuk mengisolasi unsur-unsur kekerasan dalamkomunitas Muslim bergema di bahkan paling terisolasi Islamsekolah. Pendidik memprotes bahwa sekolah mereka sedang kelirudipilih untuk menyalahkan. Mereka mengingatkan masyarakat tentang peran beranisekolah Islam telah bermain dalam perjuangan kemerdekaan Indonesia;sejumlah besar aktif politisi pesantren dan Madrasah-berpendidikandi pihak multireligious; dan menunjukkan komitmen yang majemukoleh Muslim siswa dan guru di perjuangan demokrasitahun 1990-an. meskipun ini protes, kekerasan beberapabayangan akan dilemparkan atas sistem sekolah Islam, memunculkan pertanyaan-pertanyaan, tidakhanya tentang sekolah dan politik, tetapi tentang tempat pendidikan Islammasyarakat Indonesia secara keseluruhan.Dalam bab ini, saya ingin melangkah mundur dari peristiwa ini dan memeriksabeberapa tren dalam sekolah Islam Indonesia. Sekolah yang sayaprihatin terutama mencakup negara 11.000 Asrama IslamSekolah (Pesantren) dan yang 36.000 modern hari sekolah Islam (madrasas).Sayap Madrasah jaringan mendidik beberapa 5,7 jutasiswa atau 13 persen dari Indonesia dasar dan sekolah menengahmahasiswa. Sayap pesantren mendidik 2,9 juta tambahansiswa, sebagian setelah mereka telah menyelesaikan dasar atau sekolah menengah. DalamPublikasi sebelumnya ditulis dengan Azyumardi Azra dan Dina Afriantydari Hidaytatullah State University Islam di Jakarta, saya yang disediakanIkhtisar Perkembangan Pendidikan Islam dalam hal ini, yang terbesarNegara mayoritas Muslim di world.7 bahwa esai juga dibahastransformatif peran yang dimainkan oleh pendidikan tinggi Islam di IndonesiaSekolah-sekolah Islam, jadi di sini saya akan menyentuh hanya dalam menyampaikan bahwa segmensistem sekolah Islam. Bab ini bertujuan untuk melampauisebelumnya esai dan alamat pertanyaan tentang bagaimana salah satu yang paling forwardlookingSistem pendidikan Islam di dunia telah juga melahirkanuntuk pinggiran kecil tapi militan. Lebih umum, Bab bertanya apaperkembangan dalam sistem pendidikan Islam menyiratkan untuk Indonesiamelanjutkan transisi dari tiga puluh dua tahun pemerintahan otoriter.58 ROBERT W. HEFNERAku mulai bab ini, kemudian, dengan ikhtisar singkat dari berbagaisekolah Islam di Indonesia. Bagian ini juga alamat pertanyaantentang bagaimana ia menjadi, seperti rekan-rekan mereka di begitu banyakNegara-negara Islam, sebagian besar sekolah Islam secara sukarela untuk membukamereka kurikulum pendidikan umum atau "duniawi" Selain agamastudi. Bab ini kemudian berubah menjadi memeriksa penampilan baru-barudari generasi baru sekolah Islam yang bersifat "sosial-gerakan". Olehsosial-gerakan sekolah, saya mengacu kepada lembaga pendidikan yang bertujuan,bukan hanya untuk menyampaikan pengetahuan dan nilai-nilai untuk anak-anak, tetapi untuk menggunakanjaringan dan persepsi frame yang menyediakan pendidikan agamatantangan eksisting organisasi negara dan masyarakat. Seperti yang saya jelaskan,dengan daya tarik untuk Islamisasi lebih dalam diri dan masyarakat, Islampendidikan di Indonesia telah lama menunjukkan beberapa karakteristikbahwa sosiolog politik mengidentifikasi dengan gerakan sosial. Namun,hanya pada tahun 1980 dan 1990-an bahwa sejumlah besarsekolah mulai menafsirkan misi ini di aktivis dan nasionalcara yang terorganisasi. Minoritas antara minoritas, hanya sebagian kecilgerakan sekolah pada gilirannya telah menafsirkan misi mereka aktivissecara politis radikal. Namun, dedikasi danMilitansi ini beberapa sekolah telah memungkinkan mereka untuk latihanpengaruh politik Muslim — jika tidak pendidikan — tidak proporsionalke nomor mereka masyarakat Indonesia.Sementara itu, seperti yang saya bahas dalam bagian terakhir dari bab ini,lanskap pendidikan arus utama telah tersapu oleh pengembanganyang kerdil kegiatan pinggiran radikal. Itu adalah fakta yangmayoritas Muslim pendidik yang luar biasa telah menyimpulkan bahwa Konstitusidemokrasi compatible dengan Islam, dan bentuk terbaikPemerintah Indonesia. Ini adalah transformasi besar Islampendidikan budaya memang. Tapi perubahan telah terbukti rumit.Bahkan saat mereka mengatakan mereka berlangganan ke nilai-nilai demokrasi, sebagian besar pendidikjuga berpendapat bahwa hukum ilahi (syariat) harus berfungsi sebagai dasar negara.Sebagai bagian penutup dari bab ini menjelaskan, koeksistensidemokratis dan syariat yang berpikiran komitmen di MuslimPendidikan lingkaran bukanlah paradoks seperti yang pertama kali muncul, karena sebagianpendidik telah etis abstrak dan secara prosedural gradualist pemahamandari betapa hukum harus dilaksanakan. Meskipun demikian,interaksi demokratis dan idealisms syariat terusmenimbulkan pertanyaan dan menghasilkan ketegangan. Kesimpulan saya menunjukkan bahwaSekolah, gerakan sosial & demokrasi di Indonesia 59Pertanyaan utama yang utama Muslim pendidik akanGrApple tahun mendatang bukanlah radikalisasi, tetapi bagaimana menyeimbangkancita-cita demokrasi dengan imperatif etika hukum Tuhan.Varietie s Educ Islam ASIUntuk bagian yang lebih baik dari satu abad, pendidikan Islam di Indonesiatelah memiliki tiga saluran institusional utama: (1) pengajian Al Qur'andasar instruksi dalam belajar membaca dan membaca tetapi tidak benar-benar memahamiAl-Qur'an; (2) belajar di pesantren atau pondok, IslamSekolah Asrama untuk siswa yang bercita-cita untuk menengah atau lanjutanFasilitas di tradisi Islam pengetahuan; dan (3) pendaftaran disebuah Madrasah, (di Indonesia) sekolah hari modern yang menggunakan dinilaikelas, buku, dan gaji instruktur memberikan campuran agamadan pendidikan umum.Seperti di tempat lain di Asia Tenggara, pengajian Al Our'an yang tertuadan bentuk paling dasar sekolah Islam, dan untuk sebagian besar siswatetap Yayasan yang pendidikan agama mereka adalahdibangun hari ini. Sering hanya ringan dilembagakan, Alquran studi biasanyaberlangsung, bukan dalam sebuah bangunan sekolah yang berdiri bebas, tetapi di desaMasjid, rumah doa (langgar, musholla), dan rumah-rumah pribadiguru-guru agama masyarakat. Kelas ini biasanya diadakan pada akhirsore atau malam hari, pada waktu ketika anak-anak muda dari enam sampai sebelastahun usia tidak jika tidak sibuk menghadiri sekolah biasa. Seperti iniJadwal terhuyung-huyung menunjukkan, studi Alquran bukanlah penggantipendidikan umum tetapi pelengkap untuk itu. Ini adalah tidak selalukasus. Pada abad kesembilan belas, ketika hanya beberapa anak-anak pribumibangsawan dan karyawan perkebunan Belanda kemudian diberi formalpendidikan,
Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:[Salinan]
Disalin!
boarding schools (pesantren) sprang up in cities and towns
across the country. In a few places, the militants got into pitched street
fights with Christians, democracy activists, and the local police. Several
dozen Islamic boarding schools also initiated campaigns to dispatch
mujahidin fighters from Java and Sumatra to the eastern Indonesian
provinces of Maluku and north Maluku, where, from 1999 to 2003,
almost ten thousand people died in fierce Christian-Muslim violence.3
56 ROBERT W. HEFNER
Concerns about the political disposition of the country’s Islamic
schools were further heightened with the 2002 bombings of a beachfront
pub in south Bali, in which more than two hundred people
perished, most of them Western tourists. The youths eventually convicted
of the attack were members of the terrorist Jemaah Islamiyah
and were discovered to have ties to an Islamic boarding school in
Lamongan, East Java. Several of that school’s administrators were, in
turn, found to be former students of Abu Bakar Ba‘asyir, the director
of the al-Mukmin boarding school in south-central Java, and a man
widely regarded as having been the leader of the Jemaah Islamiyah
(JI). In October 2005, suicide bombers with ties to the JI launched
three bomb attacks on tourist sites in south Bali, killing twenty-five
people, most of them Indonesians.
Some Western observers saw these incidents as proof that at
least some among Indonesia’s Islamic schools had become training
camps for al-Qa‘ida militants intent on opening a “second front”
against Western interests.4 It was not just Western analysts, however,
who harbored these concerns. A few days after the second Bali
bombing, the Indonesian vice president, Jusuf Kalla, blamed the attack
on individuals from an Islamic boarding school, which he declined to
identify by name. The vice president emphasized that the government
understood that the great majority of Islamic schools have nothing to
do with terrorism. Nonetheless, he insisted, it was obliged to carry out
heightened surveillance of the few schools inclined toward “irresponsible”
behavior. A few days later, Kalla startled Muslim educators further
by his announcement that the government planned to fingerprint all
boarding school students (santri). Kalla’s declaration was greeted with
a storm of protest as well as a terse disclaimer from the national chief
of police, who made it clear that his department had no intention of
fingerprinting santri.5
The chief’s opposition to fingerprinting notwithstanding, in the
weeks following the second Bali bombing, police blanketed neighborhoods
and towns across Indonesia with banners calling for citizens to
report any activity that might be linked to terrorism. Those weeks also
witnessed a dramatic increase in Muslim scholars’ condemnation of
terrorist acts, statements interpreted by many observers as part of a
campaign to support the government’s efforts. The period also saw the
publication of books by prominent Muslim scholars emphasizing that
Schools, Social Movements & Democracy in Indonesia 57
a terrorist network exists in Indonesia and is a threat to Muslims and
Muslim schooling. Prior to this time, government officials and Muslim
leaders had hesitated to make such statements for fear of sounding
as if they were aligning themselves with the United States, whose
military actions in Afghanistan and Iraq were widely unpopular.6
As my research visits in December 2005, July–August 2006, and
December 2006 revealed, these efforts to isolate violent elements in
the Muslim community reverberated in even the most isolated Islamic
schools. Educators protested that their schools were being wrongly
singled out for blame. They reminded the public of the courageous role
that Islamic schools had played in Indonesia’s independence struggle;
the large number of pesantren- and madrasa-educated politicians active
in multireligious parties; and the pluralist commitments demonstrated
by Muslim students and teachers in the democracy struggles of the
1990s. Notwithstanding these protestations, the violent acts of a few
cast a shadow over the Islamic school system, raising questions, not
just about schools and politics, but about the place of Islamic education
in Indonesian society as a whole.
In this chapter, I want to step back from these events and examine
several trends in Indonesia’s Islamic schools. The schools with which I
am primarily concerned include the country’s 11,000 Islamic boarding
schools (pesantrens) and its 36,000 modern Islamic day schools (madrasas).
The madrasa wing of the network educates some 5.7 million
students or 13 percent of Indonesia’s primary and secondary school
student body. The pesantren wing educates an additional 2.9 million
students, most after they have completed primary or middle school. In
an earlier publication written with Azyumardi Azra and Dina Afrianty
from the Hidaytatullah State Islamic University in Jakarta, I provided
an overview of the development of Islamic education in this, the largest
Muslim-majority country in the world.7 That essay also discussed the
transformative role played by Islamic higher education in Indonesia’s
Muslim schools, so here I will touch only in passing on that segment of
the Islamic school system. The present chapter aims to go beyond the
earlier essay and address the question of how one of the most forwardlooking
Islamic educational systems in the world has also given rise
to a small but militant fringe. More generally, the chapter asks what
developments in the Islamic educational system imply for Indonesia’s
continuing transition from thirty-two years of authoritarian rule.
58 ROBERT W. HEFNER
I begin this chapter, then, with a brief overview of the variety
of Islamic schools in Indonesia. This section also addresses the question
of how it came to be that, unlike their counterparts in so many
Muslim nations, the majority of Islamic schools volunteered to open
their curricula to general or “secular” education in addition to religious
study. The chapter then turns to examine the recent appearance
of a new breed of Islamic schools of a “social-movement” nature. By
social-movement schools, I refer to educational institutions that aim,
not merely to impart knowledge and values to children, but to use the
networks and perceptual frames that religious education provides to
challenge the existing organization of state and society. As I explain,
with its appeal for a deeper Islamization of self and society, Islamic
education in Indonesia has long displayed some of the characteristics
that political sociologists identify with social movements. However,
it was only in the 1980s and 1990s that a significant number of
schools began to interpret this mission in an activist and nationally
organized way. A minority among a minority, only a tiny proportion
of the movement schools have in turn interpreted their activist mission
in a politically radical manner. However, the dedication and
militancy of these few schools have allowed them to exercise an
influence on Muslim politics—if not education—disproportionate
to their numbers in Indonesian society.
Meanwhile, as I discuss in the final section of this chapter, the
mainstream educational landscape has been swept by a development
that dwarfs the activities of the radical fringe. It is the fact that the
overwhelming majority of Muslim educators have concluded that constitutional
democracy is compatible with Islam, and is the best form
of government for Indonesia. This is a great transformation of Islamic
educational culture indeed. But the change has proved complicated.
Even as they say they subscribe to democratic values, most educators
also opine that divine law (shari‘a) should serve as the basis of the state.
As the concluding section of this chapter explains, the coexistence
of democratic and shari‘a-minded commitments in Muslim
educational circles is not as paradoxical as it first appears, since most
educators have an ethically abstract and procedurally gradualist understanding
of just how the law should be implemented. Nonetheless,
the interplay of democratic and shari‘a idealisms continues to
raise questions and generate tensions. My conclusion suggests that
Schools, Social Movements & Democracy in Indonesia 59
the primary question with which mainstream Muslim educators will
grapple in years to come is not radicalization, but how to balance the
ideals of democracy with the ethical imperatives of God’s law.
Varietie s of Islamic Educ ation
For the better part of a century, Islamic education in Indonesia
has had three primary institutional channels: (1) pengajian Qur’an,
basic instruction in learning to read and recite but not literally understand
the Qur’an; (2) study at a pesantren or pondok, an Islamic
boarding school for students aspiring to intermediate or advanced
facility in Islamic traditions of knowledge; and (3) enrollment in
a madrasa, a (in Indonesia) modern day school that uses graded
classes, textbooks, and salaried instructors to provide a mix of religious
and general education.
As elsewhere in Southeast Asia, pengajian Qur’an is the oldest
and most elementary form of Islamic schooling, and for most students
it remains the foundation on which their religious education is
built today. Often only lightly institutionalized, Qur’anic study usually
takes place, not in a freestanding school building, but in village
mosques, prayer houses (langgar, musholla), and the private homes
of community religious teachers. Classes are usually held in the late
afternoon or evening, at a time when young children of six to eleven
years of age are not otherwise busy attending a regular school. As this
staggered schedule suggests, Qur’anic study is not a substitute for
general education but a complement to it. This was not always the
case. In the nineteenth century, when only a few children of native
aristocrats and employees of Dutch estates were provided with a formal
education,
Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
 
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