altruistic—that is, they care about the outcomes of others as well as  terjemahan - altruistic—that is, they care about the outcomes of others as well as  Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

altruistic—that is, they care about

altruistic—that is, they care about the outcomes of others as well as themselves.
If individuals are altruistic, they may be willing to contribute to a public
good even if the free rider problem suggests they should not. In terms of
our model, this would be equivalent to Ben caring not only about the costs of
fireworks to himself, but the cost to Jerry as well, so that he is willing to contribute
more in order to lower Jerry’s burden.
Evidence for altruism comes from laboratory experiments of the kind that are
typically employed in other fields, such as psychology, but that are gaining popularity
as a means of resolving difficult economic issues. The typical public
goods experiment proceeds as follows: five college undergraduates are placed
in a room to play ten rounds of a simple game. In each round, the students are
given $1, and they have the option of keeping that $1 or placing it in a “public”
fund. After all students decide whether to contribute, the amount in the public
fund is then doubled (by the economist running the experiment) and divided
up evenly among all five students, regardless of whether or not they contributed.
Thus, if all choose to contribute $1 to the fund, they each receive $2 in return.
If only 4 contribute to the fund, each of the contributors receives $1.60 (4 
$2/5 students), while the noncontributors retain his full $1 and gets the $1.60
from the public fund, for a total of $2.60. Relative to full participation, the
contributors lose money and the noncontributors make money. There is thus a
very clear incentive to free ride off the contributions of others, so that economists
predict theoretically that no one should ever contribute to the public
fund. If we start from a point of no contributors, any particular individual loses
money by voluntarily becoming a contributor, so no one should do so.
The experimental evidence shows an outcome that is very different from
that predicted by economic theory. As reviewed in Ledyard (1995), nearly every
such public goods experiment results in 30–70% of the participants contributing
to the public fund. Interestingly, in experiments with multiple rounds, such
as the one just described, contributions tend to decline as the rounds progress,
but rarely, if ever, reach zero. Thus, altruism appears to trump the purely selfish
prediction that underlies the theory of the free rider problem.
Laboratory experiments, however, suffer from some limitations as a source
of information about real -world behavior. Individuals may behave differently
in a laboratory setting, where the stakes are often small, than they do in actual
markets, where the stakes can be higher. Moreover, most of the experimental
evidence used in economics comes from laboratory work with college undergraduates,
which may not provide a representative answer for the entire population
of interest.
Nevertheless, some real -world evidence is also consistent with altruism in private
support of public goods. For example, Brunner (1998) noted that the traditional
theory of public goods suggests that as the numbers of users of a good
increases, the tendency for individuals to contribute to the financing of that
good should decrease as they feel that their contribution has less and less of an
impact (with only one user, there is no free rider possibility, but as the number of
users grows, each individual’s contribution benefits that person less and less and
others more and more). Brunner therefore studied public radio stations across
the country, examining listeners’ contributions in relation to the total size of a
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altruistic—that is, they care about the outcomes of others as well as themselves.If individuals are altruistic, they may be willing to contribute to a publicgood even if the free rider problem suggests they should not. In terms ofour model, this would be equivalent to Ben caring not only about the costs offireworks to himself, but the cost to Jerry as well, so that he is willing to contributemore in order to lower Jerry’s burden.Evidence for altruism comes from laboratory experiments of the kind that aretypically employed in other fields, such as psychology, but that are gaining popularityas a means of resolving difficult economic issues. The typical publicgoods experiment proceeds as follows: five college undergraduates are placedin a room to play ten rounds of a simple game. In each round, the students aregiven $1, and they have the option of keeping that $1 or placing it in a “public”fund. After all students decide whether to contribute, the amount in the publicfund is then doubled (by the economist running the experiment) and dividedup evenly among all five students, regardless of whether or not they contributed.Thus, if all choose to contribute $1 to the fund, they each receive $2 in return.If only 4 contribute to the fund, each of the contributors receives $1.60 (4 $2/5 students), while the noncontributors retain his full $1 and gets the $1.60from the public fund, for a total of $2.60. Relative to full participation, thecontributors lose money and the noncontributors make money. There is thus a
very clear incentive to free ride off the contributions of others, so that economists
predict theoretically that no one should ever contribute to the public
fund. If we start from a point of no contributors, any particular individual loses
money by voluntarily becoming a contributor, so no one should do so.
The experimental evidence shows an outcome that is very different from
that predicted by economic theory. As reviewed in Ledyard (1995), nearly every
such public goods experiment results in 30–70% of the participants contributing
to the public fund. Interestingly, in experiments with multiple rounds, such
as the one just described, contributions tend to decline as the rounds progress,
but rarely, if ever, reach zero. Thus, altruism appears to trump the purely selfish
prediction that underlies the theory of the free rider problem.
Laboratory experiments, however, suffer from some limitations as a source
of information about real -world behavior. Individuals may behave differently
in a laboratory setting, where the stakes are often small, than they do in actual
markets, where the stakes can be higher. Moreover, most of the experimental
evidence used in economics comes from laboratory work with college undergraduates,
which may not provide a representative answer for the entire population
of interest.
Nevertheless, some real -world evidence is also consistent with altruism in private
support of public goods. For example, Brunner (1998) noted that the traditional
theory of public goods suggests that as the numbers of users of a good
increases, the tendency for individuals to contribute to the financing of that
good should decrease as they feel that their contribution has less and less of an
impact (with only one user, there is no free rider possibility, but as the number of
users grows, each individual’s contribution benefits that person less and less and
others more and more). Brunner therefore studied public radio stations across
the country, examining listeners’ contributions in relation to the total size of a
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altruistik-yaitu, mereka peduli tentang hasil dari orang lain serta diri mereka sendiri.
Jika individu altruistik, mereka mungkin bersedia untuk berkontribusi pada masyarakat
baik bahkan jika masalah pengendara bebas menunjukkan mereka tidak seharusnya. Dalam hal
model kami, ini akan setara dengan Ben peduli tidak hanya tentang biaya
kembang api untuk dirinya sendiri, tetapi biaya untuk Jerry juga, sehingga ia bersedia untuk berkontribusi
lebih banyak untuk menurunkan Jerry beban.
Bukti untuk altruisme datang dari percobaan laboratorium dari jenis yang
biasanya digunakan di bidang lain, seperti psikologi, tetapi yang mendapatkan popularitas
sebagai sarana menyelesaikan masalah ekonomi yang sulit. Masyarakat khas
percobaan barang hasil sebagai berikut: lima mahasiswa perguruan tinggi ditempatkan
di sebuah ruangan untuk bermain sepuluh putaran permainan sederhana. Dalam setiap putaran, para siswa
diberikan $ 1, dan mereka memiliki pilihan untuk menjaga bahwa $ 1 atau menempatkannya dalam "publik"
dana. Setelah semua siswa memutuskan apakah untuk berkontribusi, jumlah dalam masyarakat
dana kemudian dua kali lipat (oleh ekonom menjalankan percobaan) dan dibagi
secara merata di antara semua lima siswa, terlepas dari apakah atau tidak mereka menyumbang.
Jadi, jika semua memilih untuk berkontribusi $ 1 untuk dana, mereka masing-masing menerima $ 2 dalam kembali.
Jika hanya 4 berkontribusi dana, masing-masing kontributor menerima $ 1,60 (4?
$ 2/5 siswa), sedangkan noncontributors mempertahankan nya penuh $ 1 dan mendapatkan $ 1,60
dari dana publik, untuk total $ 2,60. Sehubungan dengan partisipasi penuh,
kontributor kehilangan uang dan noncontributors menghasilkan uang. Jadi ada
insentif yang sangat jelas untuk membebaskan naik dari kontribusi orang lain, sehingga ekonom
memprediksi secara teoritis bahwa tidak ada yang harus pernah berkontribusi kepada masyarakat
dana. Jika kita mulai dari titik tidak kontributor, setiap individu tertentu kehilangan
uang dengan sukarela menjadi kontributor, sehingga tidak ada yang harus melakukannya.
Bukti eksperimental menunjukkan hasil yang sangat berbeda dari
yang diprediksi oleh teori ekonomi. Seperti Ulasan di Ledyard (1995), hampir setiap
seperti barang publik hasil percobaan dalam 30-70% dari peserta berkontribusi
untuk dana publik. Menariknya, dalam percobaan dengan beberapa putaran, seperti
sebagai salah satu yang baru saja dijelaskan, kontribusi cenderung menurun sebagai kemajuan putaran,
tapi jarang, jika pernah, mencapai nol. Dengan demikian, altruisme tampaknya truf murni egois
prediksi yang mendasari teori bebas pengendara masalah.
Percobaan laboratorium, bagaimanapun, menderita beberapa keterbatasan sebagai sumber
informasi tentang perilaku -World nyata. Individu dapat berperilaku berbeda
di laboratorium, di mana taruhannya sering kecil, daripada yang mereka lakukan di sebenarnya
pasar, di mana taruhannya bisa lebih tinggi. Selain itu, sebagian besar percobaan
bukti yang digunakan dalam ilmu ekonomi berasal dari pekerjaan laboratorium dengan mahasiswa perguruan tinggi,
yang mungkin tidak memberikan jawaban yang representatif untuk seluruh penduduk
bunga.
Namun demikian, beberapa bukti -World nyata juga konsisten dengan altruisme secara pribadi
mendukung barang publik . Misalnya, Brunner (1998) mencatat bahwa tradisional
teori barang publik menunjukkan bahwa sebagai jumlah pengguna dari yang baik
meningkat, kecenderungan bagi individu untuk berkontribusi pada pembiayaan yang
baik harus menurunkan karena mereka merasa bahwa kontribusi mereka memiliki kurang dan kurang dari
dampak (dengan hanya satu pengguna, ada kemungkinan pebalap gratis, tetapi karena jumlah
pengguna tumbuh, manfaat kontribusi masing-masing individu yang orang kurang dan kurang dan
lain-lain lebih banyak dan lebih). Oleh karena itu Brunner belajar stasiun radio umum di seluruh
negeri, memeriksa kontribusi pendengar 'dalam hubungannya dengan ukuran total dari
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