- Teks
- Sejarah
Understanding Organizations • 91imp
Understanding Organizations • 91
improve the organization’s functioning. Organizations attempt to apply the best
available knowledge to their system to enhance throughput. Drucker (1993)
argues that organizational knowledge has progressed through three stages.
The first he labels the Industrial Revolution (1700–1880), which was the application
of knowledge to doing things. Drucker is unique in using this label for
this time period, but he is providing differentiation for the stages of knowledge
use. During this time period, experience was converted into knowledge. What
worked for individual crafts, occupation, or processes was studied. In a similar
manner, the particular tools, processes, and products were examined in the
first engineering, mining, and agricultural schools leading to a systematic set
of information and knowledge about how to do something. Production techniques,
developed from this accumulated knowledge, lead to factories causing
a concentration of workers in central locations. Second, the Productivity Revolution
(1881–Post World War II) saw the applying of knowledge to improve
work methods as we discussed during our analysis of Scientific Management
earlier in this chapter. During this time period, there was “practically no access
to a middle-class income without a formal degree, which certifies to the acquisition
of knowledge that can only be obtained systematically and in a school”
(Drucker, 1993, p. 42). Finally, the Management Revolution (post-World War
II–2020) is seeing knowledge work rapidly replacing manual labor. We have
shifted from one set of knowledge about how to manage to a set of knowledges
or disciplines. We moved from crafts to methodologies; ad hoc experiences to
systems; anecdotes to information; and skills into concepts that can be taught
and learned. In other words, we are completing the movement from manual
to mental. This will force a rapid decentralization in order to innovate and
take advantage of knowledge. Knowledge workers transform information into
knowledge and wisdom to support decisions, actions, and outcomes.
Federalism is likely to become the optimum form with the various subunits,
disciplines, or parts doing the creating while being supported by the
center. This is not a hypothetical concept. ABB, a multinational organization
of 20,000 employees, has a center (headquarters) of 150 people. We now examine
the eight additional changes.
Horizontal Organizations
Organizations are becoming more horizontal and removing layers (Wind &
Main, 1998). Ideally, this horizontal organization strives to remove the separation
of people and place work into functional departments. Using a culture of
collaboration with employees working together, cooperation between units is
encouraged and the hierarchy is flattened (Ostaff, 1999). The need for speed,
customer focus, innovation, and information require a greater dependence on
networks rather than a hierarchy or chain of command forcing a horizontal
approach. Flexibility in structure is becoming critical. Rather than being vertically
integrated, organizations are becoming networked (Wind & Main, 1998).
92 • Applied Organizational Communication
The digital age will include work groups connected electronically
92 • Applied Organizational Communication
The digital age will include work groups connected electronically even
though they may be dispersed around the globe. Overnight delivery of content
can now be replaced digitally by a keystroke and an attachment command on
a computer. Virtualization will be used increasingly to determine outcomes
without any need for our physical presence. Teams will solve problems, disband
quickly and redeploy with a different mix of players to work on other
issues. Informed workers with various roles will perform ad hoc tasks using
input from many sources.
Empowerment
Allowing individuals to set their own work goals, make decisions, and solve
problems is the basis for empowerment (see chaps. 10 and 11). Probably an
overused term, the concept is on target. As we stated earlier, employees are an
asset that can increase in value. But, that can only occur if they are allowed to
use their minds. Employees are increasingly being viewed as an organization’s
most valuable assets (Branch, 1999; Caudron, 1998). They are being encouraged
to initiate and participate in decision making through training, empowerment
to take actions, and providing creative answers (Conner, 1998). In the
old organization, the top levels were the thinkers and the lower levels were the
doers. Empowerment, combined with a horizontal structure, allows everyone
to be both a thinker and doer—the combined strengths lead to an empowered
organization (Gates, 1999; Jasinowski & Hamin, 1995).
Information and Digital Processes
In the past, information tended to flow downward. In the future, information
will move in all directions. As we indicated in chapter 1, capital and ownership
of assets is being replaced by the power of information. “Though the term
might sound cold, digital processes is about the empowerment of individuals.
… A belief in empowerment is key to getting the most out of a digital nervous
system” (Gates, 1999, p. 409). The impact is universal. “The Internet has
become ubiquitous, so companies can connect with talent anywhere in the
blink of an eye, inside or outside the company. Open-source software can be
plucked off the shelf to become the foundation of new software programs or
Web sites. Algorithms can be used to slice and dice market information and
spot new trends” (Hamm, 2006, p. 71). We examine these trends more completely
in chapter 12.
Learning Organizations
The dynamic nature of organizations underscores the critical impact of
knowledge and learning. Informing and training is increasing in the highly
competitive organizations (Branch, 1999). Rather than using a “need to know”
philosophy where upper management hoards information from lower levels
and, sometimes, each other, opportunities are created to increase understand-
Understanding Organizations • 93
Understanding Organizations • 93
ing, involvement, and effectiveness. “A learning organization engages in a new
way of communicating and interacting” (Barker & Camarata, 1998, p. 445; see
chap. 1).
Quality and Customers
Most organizations understand the importance of quality. However, quality
and customer satisfaction are moving targets because today’s consumer has
higher quality expectations (Cummings & Worley, 2005). Now, customers are
being seen as allies, partners, and active participants in the creation and delivery
of products and services and not a passive group that can be easily manipulated.
Quality is such an underlying principle that for many organizations
it is now an assumption or a fundamental part of doing business. Motorola
announced its six-sigma standard in 1987. This amounts to no more than 3.4
mistakes per million parts. Although Motorola is unlikely to consistently meet
this standard, it demonstrates how far quality has progressed. How significant
is the six-sigma quality standard? If we have 99.9% defect-free work—much
less than six sigma, 50 newborn babies in the United States would be dropped
on the floor by a physician daily; 200,000 incorrect prescriptions would be
filled each year; two planes would not land safely each hour at Atlanta’s Hartsfield
International Airport; we would be without electricity, heat, or water
for 15 minutes each day; and 22,000 times an hour, banks would deduct the
wrong check from someone else’s account. In other words, “mistakes happen”
is not an acceptable part of the customer’s quality perspective.
Speed and Time
With the advent of new technologies, speed and time will remain at the forefront
of organizational change. “Speed is emerging as the ultimate competitive
weapon” (Hamm, 2006, p. 70). Speed to market, decrease in product development
time, and higher efficiencies will remain cornerstones of organizations
in the 21st century. Efforts at increasing efficiency will pick up because of
technological advances, cost savings, and competition. “Competition is more
intense than ever because of the rise of the Asian powerhouses and the spread
of disruptive new Internet technologies and business models. Companies
realize that all their attention to efficiency in the past decade was fine–but it’s
not nearly enough” (Hamm, 2006, p. 70).
Focus
Companies will concentrate on doing what they do best. For example, 3M
wants to solve problems innovatively. The Girl Scouts of America strive to
help a girl reach her highest potential. Hewlett-Packard wishes to make technical
contributions for the advancement and welfare of humanity. Mary Kay
Cosmetics wants to give unlimited opportunity to women. Walt Disney seeks
to make people happy. In the list of the most admired companies in America,
94 • Applied Organizational Communication
“All ten companies on the top of our list have a single-minded focus” (Brown,
1999, p. 73). Wal-Mart moves merchandise effectively to its 3,000 stores, GE
focuses on growth in shareholder value, Microsoft hires brilliant workers, and
“Southwest Airlines promotes a culture that impels employees to deliver topnotch
service on the ground and in the air” (Brown, 1999, p. 73).
Diversity
The entire workforce is changing as outlined earlier. By 2008, women and
minorities will make up 70% of the incoming workforce. Single households
in the United States now outnumber married couples with children (Armand-
Delille, 2006). Even though the values of a diverse workforce are well documented,
we face important challenges in making certain that differences are
valued. There are important obstacles that continued advancement must
overcome including changing the prevailing corporate culture to be more
inclusive, increasing role models, actively working to alter stereotyping and
preconceptions, and including marginalized groups into informal networks
(Klimley, 1999). Needless t
improve the organization’s functioning. Organizations attempt to apply the best
available knowledge to their system to enhance throughput. Drucker (1993)
argues that organizational knowledge has progressed through three stages.
The first he labels the Industrial Revolution (1700–1880), which was the application
of knowledge to doing things. Drucker is unique in using this label for
this time period, but he is providing differentiation for the stages of knowledge
use. During this time period, experience was converted into knowledge. What
worked for individual crafts, occupation, or processes was studied. In a similar
manner, the particular tools, processes, and products were examined in the
first engineering, mining, and agricultural schools leading to a systematic set
of information and knowledge about how to do something. Production techniques,
developed from this accumulated knowledge, lead to factories causing
a concentration of workers in central locations. Second, the Productivity Revolution
(1881–Post World War II) saw the applying of knowledge to improve
work methods as we discussed during our analysis of Scientific Management
earlier in this chapter. During this time period, there was “practically no access
to a middle-class income without a formal degree, which certifies to the acquisition
of knowledge that can only be obtained systematically and in a school”
(Drucker, 1993, p. 42). Finally, the Management Revolution (post-World War
II–2020) is seeing knowledge work rapidly replacing manual labor. We have
shifted from one set of knowledge about how to manage to a set of knowledges
or disciplines. We moved from crafts to methodologies; ad hoc experiences to
systems; anecdotes to information; and skills into concepts that can be taught
and learned. In other words, we are completing the movement from manual
to mental. This will force a rapid decentralization in order to innovate and
take advantage of knowledge. Knowledge workers transform information into
knowledge and wisdom to support decisions, actions, and outcomes.
Federalism is likely to become the optimum form with the various subunits,
disciplines, or parts doing the creating while being supported by the
center. This is not a hypothetical concept. ABB, a multinational organization
of 20,000 employees, has a center (headquarters) of 150 people. We now examine
the eight additional changes.
Horizontal Organizations
Organizations are becoming more horizontal and removing layers (Wind &
Main, 1998). Ideally, this horizontal organization strives to remove the separation
of people and place work into functional departments. Using a culture of
collaboration with employees working together, cooperation between units is
encouraged and the hierarchy is flattened (Ostaff, 1999). The need for speed,
customer focus, innovation, and information require a greater dependence on
networks rather than a hierarchy or chain of command forcing a horizontal
approach. Flexibility in structure is becoming critical. Rather than being vertically
integrated, organizations are becoming networked (Wind & Main, 1998).
92 • Applied Organizational Communication
The digital age will include work groups connected electronically
92 • Applied Organizational Communication
The digital age will include work groups connected electronically even
though they may be dispersed around the globe. Overnight delivery of content
can now be replaced digitally by a keystroke and an attachment command on
a computer. Virtualization will be used increasingly to determine outcomes
without any need for our physical presence. Teams will solve problems, disband
quickly and redeploy with a different mix of players to work on other
issues. Informed workers with various roles will perform ad hoc tasks using
input from many sources.
Empowerment
Allowing individuals to set their own work goals, make decisions, and solve
problems is the basis for empowerment (see chaps. 10 and 11). Probably an
overused term, the concept is on target. As we stated earlier, employees are an
asset that can increase in value. But, that can only occur if they are allowed to
use their minds. Employees are increasingly being viewed as an organization’s
most valuable assets (Branch, 1999; Caudron, 1998). They are being encouraged
to initiate and participate in decision making through training, empowerment
to take actions, and providing creative answers (Conner, 1998). In the
old organization, the top levels were the thinkers and the lower levels were the
doers. Empowerment, combined with a horizontal structure, allows everyone
to be both a thinker and doer—the combined strengths lead to an empowered
organization (Gates, 1999; Jasinowski & Hamin, 1995).
Information and Digital Processes
In the past, information tended to flow downward. In the future, information
will move in all directions. As we indicated in chapter 1, capital and ownership
of assets is being replaced by the power of information. “Though the term
might sound cold, digital processes is about the empowerment of individuals.
… A belief in empowerment is key to getting the most out of a digital nervous
system” (Gates, 1999, p. 409). The impact is universal. “The Internet has
become ubiquitous, so companies can connect with talent anywhere in the
blink of an eye, inside or outside the company. Open-source software can be
plucked off the shelf to become the foundation of new software programs or
Web sites. Algorithms can be used to slice and dice market information and
spot new trends” (Hamm, 2006, p. 71). We examine these trends more completely
in chapter 12.
Learning Organizations
The dynamic nature of organizations underscores the critical impact of
knowledge and learning. Informing and training is increasing in the highly
competitive organizations (Branch, 1999). Rather than using a “need to know”
philosophy where upper management hoards information from lower levels
and, sometimes, each other, opportunities are created to increase understand-
Understanding Organizations • 93
Understanding Organizations • 93
ing, involvement, and effectiveness. “A learning organization engages in a new
way of communicating and interacting” (Barker & Camarata, 1998, p. 445; see
chap. 1).
Quality and Customers
Most organizations understand the importance of quality. However, quality
and customer satisfaction are moving targets because today’s consumer has
higher quality expectations (Cummings & Worley, 2005). Now, customers are
being seen as allies, partners, and active participants in the creation and delivery
of products and services and not a passive group that can be easily manipulated.
Quality is such an underlying principle that for many organizations
it is now an assumption or a fundamental part of doing business. Motorola
announced its six-sigma standard in 1987. This amounts to no more than 3.4
mistakes per million parts. Although Motorola is unlikely to consistently meet
this standard, it demonstrates how far quality has progressed. How significant
is the six-sigma quality standard? If we have 99.9% defect-free work—much
less than six sigma, 50 newborn babies in the United States would be dropped
on the floor by a physician daily; 200,000 incorrect prescriptions would be
filled each year; two planes would not land safely each hour at Atlanta’s Hartsfield
International Airport; we would be without electricity, heat, or water
for 15 minutes each day; and 22,000 times an hour, banks would deduct the
wrong check from someone else’s account. In other words, “mistakes happen”
is not an acceptable part of the customer’s quality perspective.
Speed and Time
With the advent of new technologies, speed and time will remain at the forefront
of organizational change. “Speed is emerging as the ultimate competitive
weapon” (Hamm, 2006, p. 70). Speed to market, decrease in product development
time, and higher efficiencies will remain cornerstones of organizations
in the 21st century. Efforts at increasing efficiency will pick up because of
technological advances, cost savings, and competition. “Competition is more
intense than ever because of the rise of the Asian powerhouses and the spread
of disruptive new Internet technologies and business models. Companies
realize that all their attention to efficiency in the past decade was fine–but it’s
not nearly enough” (Hamm, 2006, p. 70).
Focus
Companies will concentrate on doing what they do best. For example, 3M
wants to solve problems innovatively. The Girl Scouts of America strive to
help a girl reach her highest potential. Hewlett-Packard wishes to make technical
contributions for the advancement and welfare of humanity. Mary Kay
Cosmetics wants to give unlimited opportunity to women. Walt Disney seeks
to make people happy. In the list of the most admired companies in America,
94 • Applied Organizational Communication
“All ten companies on the top of our list have a single-minded focus” (Brown,
1999, p. 73). Wal-Mart moves merchandise effectively to its 3,000 stores, GE
focuses on growth in shareholder value, Microsoft hires brilliant workers, and
“Southwest Airlines promotes a culture that impels employees to deliver topnotch
service on the ground and in the air” (Brown, 1999, p. 73).
Diversity
The entire workforce is changing as outlined earlier. By 2008, women and
minorities will make up 70% of the incoming workforce. Single households
in the United States now outnumber married couples with children (Armand-
Delille, 2006). Even though the values of a diverse workforce are well documented,
we face important challenges in making certain that differences are
valued. There are important obstacles that continued advancement must
overcome including changing the prevailing corporate culture to be more
inclusive, increasing role models, actively working to alter stereotyping and
preconceptions, and including marginalized groups into informal networks
(Klimley, 1999). Needless t
0/5000
Understanding Organizations • 91improve the organization’s functioning. Organizations attempt to apply the bestavailable knowledge to their system to enhance throughput. Drucker (1993)argues that organizational knowledge has progressed through three stages.The first he labels the Industrial Revolution (1700–1880), which was the applicationof knowledge to doing things. Drucker is unique in using this label forthis time period, but he is providing differentiation for the stages of knowledgeuse. During this time period, experience was converted into knowledge. Whatworked for individual crafts, occupation, or processes was studied. In a similarmanner, the particular tools, processes, and products were examined in thefirst engineering, mining, and agricultural schools leading to a systematic setof information and knowledge about how to do something. Production techniques,developed from this accumulated knowledge, lead to factories causinga concentration of workers in central locations. Second, the Productivity Revolution(1881–Post World War II) saw the applying of knowledge to improvework methods as we discussed during our analysis of Scientific Managementearlier in this chapter. During this time period, there was “practically no accessto a middle-class income without a formal degree, which certifies to the acquisitionof knowledge that can only be obtained systematically and in a school”(Drucker, 1993, p. 42). Finally, the Management Revolution (post-World WarII–2020) is seeing knowledge work rapidly replacing manual labor. We haveshifted from one set of knowledge about how to manage to a set of knowledgesor disciplines. We moved from crafts to methodologies; ad hoc experiences tosystems; anecdotes to information; and skills into concepts that can be taughtand learned. In other words, we are completing the movement from manualto mental. This will force a rapid decentralization in order to innovate andtake advantage of knowledge. Knowledge workers transform information intoknowledge and wisdom to support decisions, actions, and outcomes.Federalism is likely to become the optimum form with the various subunits,disciplines, or parts doing the creating while being supported by thecenter. This is not a hypothetical concept. ABB, a multinational organizationof 20,000 employees, has a center (headquarters) of 150 people. We now examinethe eight additional changes.Horizontal OrganizationsOrganizations are becoming more horizontal and removing layers (Wind &Main, 1998). Ideally, this horizontal organization strives to remove the separationof people and place work into functional departments. Using a culture ofcollaboration with employees working together, cooperation between units isencouraged and the hierarchy is flattened (Ostaff, 1999). The need for speed,customer focus, innovation, and information require a greater dependence onnetworks rather than a hierarchy or chain of command forcing a horizontalapproach. Flexibility in structure is becoming critical. Rather than being verticallyintegrated, organizations are becoming networked (Wind & Main, 1998).92 • Applied Organizational CommunicationThe digital age will include work groups connected electronically92 • Applied Organizational CommunicationThe digital age will include work groups connected electronically eventhough they may be dispersed around the globe. Overnight delivery of contentcan now be replaced digitally by a keystroke and an attachment command ona computer. Virtualization will be used increasingly to determine outcomeswithout any need for our physical presence. Teams will solve problems, disbandquickly and redeploy with a different mix of players to work on otherissues. Informed workers with various roles will perform ad hoc tasks usinginput from many sources.EmpowermentAllowing individuals to set their own work goals, make decisions, and solveproblems is the basis for empowerment (see chaps. 10 and 11). Probably anoverused term, the concept is on target. As we stated earlier, employees are anasset that can increase in value. But, that can only occur if they are allowed touse their minds. Employees are increasingly being viewed as an organization’smost valuable assets (Branch, 1999; Caudron, 1998). They are being encouragedto initiate and participate in decision making through training, empowermentto take actions, and providing creative answers (Conner, 1998). In theold organization, the top levels were the thinkers and the lower levels were thedoers. Empowerment, combined with a horizontal structure, allows everyoneto be both a thinker and doer—the combined strengths lead to an empoweredorganization (Gates, 1999; Jasinowski & Hamin, 1995).Information and Digital ProcessesIn the past, information tended to flow downward. In the future, informationwill move in all directions. As we indicated in chapter 1, capital and ownershipof assets is being replaced by the power of information. “Though the termmight sound cold, digital processes is about the empowerment of individuals.… A belief in empowerment is key to getting the most out of a digital nervoussystem” (Gates, 1999, p. 409). The impact is universal. “The Internet hasbecome ubiquitous, so companies can connect with talent anywhere in theblink of an eye, inside or outside the company. Open-source software can beplucked off the shelf to become the foundation of new software programs orWeb sites. Algorithms can be used to slice and dice market information andspot new trends” (Hamm, 2006, p. 71). We examine these trends more completelyin chapter 12.Learning OrganizationsThe dynamic nature of organizations underscores the critical impact ofknowledge and learning. Informing and training is increasing in the highlycompetitive organizations (Branch, 1999). Rather than using a “need to know”philosophy where upper management hoards information from lower levelsand, sometimes, each other, opportunities are created to increase understand-Understanding Organizations • 93Understanding Organizations • 93ing, involvement, and effectiveness. “A learning organization engages in a newway of communicating and interacting” (Barker & Camarata, 1998, p. 445; seechap. 1).Quality and CustomersMost organizations understand the importance of quality. However, qualityand customer satisfaction are moving targets because today’s consumer hashigher quality expectations (Cummings & Worley, 2005). Now, customers arebeing seen as allies, partners, and active participants in the creation and deliveryof products and services and not a passive group that can be easily manipulated.Quality is such an underlying principle that for many organizationsit is now an assumption or a fundamental part of doing business. Motorolaannounced its six-sigma standard in 1987. This amounts to no more than 3.4mistakes per million parts. Although Motorola is unlikely to consistently meetthis standard, it demonstrates how far quality has progressed. How significantis the six-sigma quality standard? If we have 99.9% defect-free work—muchless than six sigma, 50 newborn babies in the United States would be droppedon the floor by a physician daily; 200,000 incorrect prescriptions would befilled each year; two planes would not land safely each hour at Atlanta’s Hartsfield
International Airport; we would be without electricity, heat, or water
for 15 minutes each day; and 22,000 times an hour, banks would deduct the
wrong check from someone else’s account. In other words, “mistakes happen”
is not an acceptable part of the customer’s quality perspective.
Speed and Time
With the advent of new technologies, speed and time will remain at the forefront
of organizational change. “Speed is emerging as the ultimate competitive
weapon” (Hamm, 2006, p. 70). Speed to market, decrease in product development
time, and higher efficiencies will remain cornerstones of organizations
in the 21st century. Efforts at increasing efficiency will pick up because of
technological advances, cost savings, and competition. “Competition is more
intense than ever because of the rise of the Asian powerhouses and the spread
of disruptive new Internet technologies and business models. Companies
realize that all their attention to efficiency in the past decade was fine–but it’s
not nearly enough” (Hamm, 2006, p. 70).
Focus
Companies will concentrate on doing what they do best. For example, 3M
wants to solve problems innovatively. The Girl Scouts of America strive to
help a girl reach her highest potential. Hewlett-Packard wishes to make technical
contributions for the advancement and welfare of humanity. Mary Kay
Cosmetics wants to give unlimited opportunity to women. Walt Disney seeks
to make people happy. In the list of the most admired companies in America,
94 • Applied Organizational Communication
“All ten companies on the top of our list have a single-minded focus” (Brown,
1999, p. 73). Wal-Mart moves merchandise effectively to its 3,000 stores, GE
focuses on growth in shareholder value, Microsoft hires brilliant workers, and
“Southwest Airlines promotes a culture that impels employees to deliver topnotch
service on the ground and in the air” (Brown, 1999, p. 73).
Diversity
The entire workforce is changing as outlined earlier. By 2008, women and
minorities will make up 70% of the incoming workforce. Single households
in the United States now outnumber married couples with children (Armand-
Delille, 2006). Even though the values of a diverse workforce are well documented,
we face important challenges in making certain that differences are
valued. There are important obstacles that continued advancement must
overcome including changing the prevailing corporate culture to be more
inclusive, increasing role models, actively working to alter stereotyping and
preconceptions, and including marginalized groups into informal networks
(Klimley, 1999). Needless t
International Airport; we would be without electricity, heat, or water
for 15 minutes each day; and 22,000 times an hour, banks would deduct the
wrong check from someone else’s account. In other words, “mistakes happen”
is not an acceptable part of the customer’s quality perspective.
Speed and Time
With the advent of new technologies, speed and time will remain at the forefront
of organizational change. “Speed is emerging as the ultimate competitive
weapon” (Hamm, 2006, p. 70). Speed to market, decrease in product development
time, and higher efficiencies will remain cornerstones of organizations
in the 21st century. Efforts at increasing efficiency will pick up because of
technological advances, cost savings, and competition. “Competition is more
intense than ever because of the rise of the Asian powerhouses and the spread
of disruptive new Internet technologies and business models. Companies
realize that all their attention to efficiency in the past decade was fine–but it’s
not nearly enough” (Hamm, 2006, p. 70).
Focus
Companies will concentrate on doing what they do best. For example, 3M
wants to solve problems innovatively. The Girl Scouts of America strive to
help a girl reach her highest potential. Hewlett-Packard wishes to make technical
contributions for the advancement and welfare of humanity. Mary Kay
Cosmetics wants to give unlimited opportunity to women. Walt Disney seeks
to make people happy. In the list of the most admired companies in America,
94 • Applied Organizational Communication
“All ten companies on the top of our list have a single-minded focus” (Brown,
1999, p. 73). Wal-Mart moves merchandise effectively to its 3,000 stores, GE
focuses on growth in shareholder value, Microsoft hires brilliant workers, and
“Southwest Airlines promotes a culture that impels employees to deliver topnotch
service on the ground and in the air” (Brown, 1999, p. 73).
Diversity
The entire workforce is changing as outlined earlier. By 2008, women and
minorities will make up 70% of the incoming workforce. Single households
in the United States now outnumber married couples with children (Armand-
Delille, 2006). Even though the values of a diverse workforce are well documented,
we face important challenges in making certain that differences are
valued. There are important obstacles that continued advancement must
overcome including changing the prevailing corporate culture to be more
inclusive, increasing role models, actively working to alter stereotyping and
preconceptions, and including marginalized groups into informal networks
(Klimley, 1999). Needless t
Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
Memahami Organisasi • 91
meningkatkan fungsi organisasi. Organisasi berusaha untuk menerapkan terbaik
pengetahuan yang tersedia untuk sistem mereka untuk meningkatkan throughput. Drucker (1993)
berpendapat bahwa pengetahuan organisasi telah berkembang melalui tiga tahap.
pertama memberi nama pada Revolusi Industri (1700-1880), yang merupakan aplikasi
pengetahuan untuk melakukan sesuatu. Drucker adalah unik dalam menggunakan label ini untuk
periode ini, tetapi ia memberikan diferensiasi untuk tahap pengetahuan
digunakan. Selama periode ini, pengalaman diubah menjadi pengetahuan. Apa
bekerja untuk kerajinan individu, pekerjaan, atau proses dipelajari. Dalam setara
cara, yang khusus alat-alat, proses, dan produk diperiksa dalam
teknik pertama, pertambangan, dan sekolah pertanian yang mengarah ke satu set sistematis
informasi dan pengetahuan tentang bagaimana melakukan sesuatu. Teknik produksi,
dikembangkan dari akumulasi pengetahuan ini, menyebabkan pabrik-pabrik menyebabkan
konsentrasi pekerja di lokasi pusat. Kedua, Produktivitas Revolusi
(1881-Post Perang Dunia II) melihat penerapan pengetahuan untuk meningkatkan
metode kerja seperti yang kita bahas selama analisis kami Manajemen Ilmiah
awal bab ini. Selama periode ini, ada "praktis tidak ada akses
ke pendapatan kelas menengah tanpa gelar formal, yang menyatakan dengan akuisisi
pengetahuan yang hanya dapat diperoleh secara sistematis dan di sekolah "
(Drucker, 1993, hal. 42). Akhirnya, Revolusi Manajemen (pasca-Perang Dunia
II-2020) adalah melihat pekerjaan pengetahuan cepat menggantikan kerja manual. Kami telah
bergeser dari satu set pengetahuan tentang bagaimana mengelola satu set pengetahuan
atau disiplin ilmu. Kami pindah dari kerajinan untuk metodologi; ad hoc untuk pengalaman
sistem; anekdot untuk informasi; dan keterampilan ke dalam konsep yang dapat diajarkan
dan dipelajari. Dengan kata lain, kita sedang menyelesaikan gerakan dari manual
ke mental. Hal ini akan memaksa desentralisasi yang cepat untuk berinovasi dan
memanfaatkan pengetahuan. Pekerja pengetahuan mengubah informasi menjadi
pengetahuan dan kebijaksanaan untuk mendukung keputusan, tindakan, dan hasil.
Federalisme kemungkinan akan menjadi bentuk yang optimal dengan berbagai subunit,
disiplin, atau bagian melakukan menciptakan sementara didukung oleh
pusat. Ini bukan konsep hipotetis. ABB, sebuah organisasi multinasional
dari 20.000 karyawan, memiliki pusat (markas) dari 150 orang. Kami sekarang memeriksa
delapan perubahan tambahan.
Horizontal Organisasi
Organisasi menjadi lebih horisontal dan menghilangkan lapisan (Angin &
Main, 1998). Idealnya, organisasi horisontal ini berusaha untuk menghapus pemisahan
dari orang-orang dan tempat kerja ke departemen fungsional. Menggunakan budaya
kolaborasi dengan karyawan yang bekerja bersama-sama, kerja sama antara unit yang
didorong dan hirarki diratakan (Ostaff, 1999). Kebutuhan akan kecepatan,
fokus pelanggan, inovasi, dan informasi memerlukan ketergantungan lebih besar pada
jaringan daripada hirarki atau rantai komando memaksa horisontal
pendekatan. Fleksibilitas dalam struktur menjadi kritis. Bukannya secara vertikal
terintegrasi, organisasi menjadi jaringan (Angin & Main, 1998).
92 • Applied Komunikasi Organisasi
Era digital akan mencakup kelompok kerja yang terhubung secara elektronik
92 • Applied Komunikasi Organisasi
Era digital akan mencakup kelompok kerja yang terhubung secara elektronik bahkan
meskipun mereka mungkin tersebar di seluruh dunia. Pengiriman semalam konten
sekarang dapat diganti secara digital oleh keystroke dan perintah lampiran pada
komputer. Virtualisasi akan digunakan semakin untuk menentukan hasil
tanpa memerlukan kehadiran fisik kita. Tim akan memecahkan masalah, bubar
dengan cepat dan memindahkan dengan campuran yang berbeda dari pemain lain untuk bekerja pada
isu-isu. Pekerja informasi dengan berbagai peran akan melakukan tugas-tugas ad hoc menggunakan
masukan dari berbagai sumber.
Pemberdayaan
Membiarkan individu untuk menetapkan tujuan kerja mereka sendiri, membuat keputusan, dan memecahkan
masalah adalah dasar untuk pemberdayaan (lihat bab. 10 dan 11). Mungkin suatu
istilah terlalu sering digunakan, konsep ini tepat sasaran. Dan seperti disebutkan sebelumnya, karyawan merupakan
aset yang dapat meningkatkan nilai. Tapi, itu hanya bisa terjadi jika mereka diizinkan untuk
menggunakan pikiran mereka. Karyawan semakin sering dipandang sebagai organisasi
aset yang paling berharga (Branch, 1999; Caudron, 1998). Mereka didorong
untuk memulai dan berpartisipasi dalam pengambilan keputusan melalui pelatihan, pemberdayaan
untuk mengambil tindakan, dan memberikan jawaban kreatif (Conner, 1998). Dalam
organisasi tua, tingkat atas adalah pemikir dan tingkat yang lebih rendah adalah
pelaku. Pemberdayaan, dikombinasikan dengan struktur horizontal, memungkinkan setiap orang
untuk menjadi pemikir dan pelaku-kekuatan gabungan menyebabkan diberdayakan
organisasi (Gates, 1999; Jasinowski & Hamin, 1995).
Informasi dan Digital Proses
Di masa lalu, informasi cenderung mengalir ke bawah. Di masa depan, informasi
akan bergerak ke segala arah. Seperti yang telah ditunjukkan dalam bab 1, modal dan kepemilikan
aset digantikan oleh kekuatan informasi. "Meskipun istilah
mungkin terdengar, proses digital dingin adalah tentang pemberdayaan individu.
... Sebuah keyakinan dalam pemberdayaan adalah kunci untuk mendapatkan hasil maksimal dari gugup digital
sistem "(Gates, 1999, hal. 409). Dampaknya adalah universal. "Internet telah
menjadi mana-mana, sehingga perusahaan dapat terhubung dengan bakat di mana saja di
sekejap mata, di dalam atau di luar perusahaan. Perangkat lunak open-source dapat
dipetik dari rak untuk menjadi dasar dari program perangkat lunak baru atau
situs Web. Algoritma dapat digunakan untuk mengiris dan informasi pasar dadu dan
melihat tren baru "(Hamm, 2006, hal. 71). Kami meneliti tren ini lebih lengkap
dalam bab 12.
Organisasi Belajar
Sifat dinamis organisasi menggarisbawahi dampak kritis
pengetahuan dan pembelajaran. Menginformasikan dan pelatihan meningkat di yang sangat
kompetitif organisasi (Cabang, 1999). Alih-alih menggunakan "perlu tahu"
filsafat mana manajemen atas menimbun informasi dari tingkat yang lebih rendah
dan, kadang-kadang, satu sama lain, peluang diciptakan untuk meningkatkan pemahaman
Memahami Organisasi • 93 Memahami Organisasi • 93 ing, keterlibatan, dan efektivitas. "Sebuah organisasi pembelajaran terlibat dalam baru cara berkomunikasi dan berinteraksi "(Barker & Camarata, 1998, hal 445;. lihat . bab 1). Kualitas dan Pelanggan Kebanyakan organisasi memahami pentingnya kualitas. Namun, kualitas dan kepuasan pelanggan adalah target bergerak karena konsumen saat ini memiliki harapan kualitas yang lebih tinggi (Cummings & Worley, 2005). Sekarang, pelanggan dilihat sebagai sekutu, mitra, dan peserta aktif dalam penciptaan dan pengiriman produk dan jasa, bukan kelompok pasif yang dapat dengan mudah dimanipulasi. Kualitas adalah prinsip dasar sehingga bagi banyak organisasi sekarang asumsi atau bagian penting dalam melakukan bisnis. Motorola mengumumkan standar enam-sigma pada tahun 1987. Jumlah ini tidak lebih dari 3,4 kesalahan per juta bagian. Meskipun Motorola tidak mungkin untuk secara konsisten memenuhi standar ini, hal ini menunjukkan seberapa jauh kualitas telah berkembang. Bagaimana signifikan adalah standar kualitas enam-sigma? Jika kita memiliki 99,9% bebas cacat pekerjaan-jauh kurang dari enam sigma, 50 bayi yang baru lahir di Amerika Serikat akan turun di lantai oleh dokter sehari-hari; 200.000 resep yang salah akan diisi setiap tahun; dua pesawat tidak akan mendarat dengan aman setiap jam di Atlanta Hartsfield Bandara Internasional; kita akan tanpa listrik, panas, atau air selama 15 menit setiap hari; dan 22.000 kali dalam satu jam, bank akan memotong cek salah dari rekening orang lain. Dengan kata lain, "kesalahan terjadi" bukan bagian yang dapat diterima dari kualitas pelanggan perspektif. Kecepatan dan Waktu Dengan munculnya teknologi baru, kecepatan dan waktu akan tetap di garis depan perubahan organisasi. "Kecepatan yang muncul sebagai kompetitif utama senjata "(Hamm, 2006, hal. 70). Kecepatan ke pasar, penurunan pengembangan produk waktu, dan efisiensi yang lebih tinggi akan tetap landasan organisasi di abad ke-21. Upaya untuk meningkatkan efisiensi akan mengambil karena kemajuan teknologi, penghematan biaya, dan kompetisi. "Persaingan lebih intens dari sebelumnya karena munculnya pusat-pusat kekuatan Asia dan penyebaran dari mengganggu teknologi Internet yang baru dan model bisnis. Perusahaan menyadari bahwa semua perhatian mereka untuk efisiensi dalam dekade terakhir baik-baik saja-tapi itu tidak cukup hampir "(Hamm, 2006, hal. 70). Fokus Perusahaan akan berkonsentrasi pada melakukan apa yang mereka lakukan yang terbaik. Misalnya, 3M ingin memecahkan masalah inovatif. Girl Scouts of America berusaha untuk membantu seorang gadis mencapai potensi tertinggi nya. Hewlett-Packard ingin membuat teknis kontribusi untuk kemajuan dan kesejahteraan umat manusia. Mary Kay Cosmetics ingin memberikan kesempatan tak terbatas bagi perempuan. Walt Disney berusaha untuk membuat orang bahagia. Dalam daftar perusahaan yang paling dikagumi di Amerika, 94 • Applied Komunikasi Organisasi "Semua sepuluh perusahaan di atas daftar kami memiliki fokus tunggal berpikiran" (Brown, 1999, hal. 73). Wal-Mart bergerak barang secara efektif untuk 3.000 tokonya, GE berfokus pada pertumbuhan nilai pemegang saham, Microsoft mempekerjakan pekerja brilian, dan "Southwest Airlines mempromosikan budaya yang mendorong karyawan untuk memberikan jempolan layanan di tanah dan di udara "(Brown, 1999 , hal. 73). Keanekaragaman Seluruh tenaga kerja berubah seperti diuraikan sebelumnya. Pada tahun 2008, perempuan dan minoritas akan membuat 70% dari tenaga kerja yang masuk. Rumah tangga tunggal di Amerika Serikat sekarang melebihi jumlah pasangan menikah dengan anak-anak (Armand- Delille, 2006). Meskipun nilai-nilai tenaga kerja yang beragam didokumentasikan dengan baik, kita menghadapi tantangan penting dalam membuat yakin bahwa perbedaan yang dihargai. Ada kendala penting yang terus kemajuan harus diatasi termasuk mengubah budaya perusahaan yang berlaku agar lebih inklusif, meningkatkan model peran, aktif bekerja untuk mengubah stereotip dan prasangka, dan termasuk kelompok masyarakat yang terpinggirkan jaringan informal (Klimley, 1999). Tak t
meningkatkan fungsi organisasi. Organisasi berusaha untuk menerapkan terbaik
pengetahuan yang tersedia untuk sistem mereka untuk meningkatkan throughput. Drucker (1993)
berpendapat bahwa pengetahuan organisasi telah berkembang melalui tiga tahap.
pertama memberi nama pada Revolusi Industri (1700-1880), yang merupakan aplikasi
pengetahuan untuk melakukan sesuatu. Drucker adalah unik dalam menggunakan label ini untuk
periode ini, tetapi ia memberikan diferensiasi untuk tahap pengetahuan
digunakan. Selama periode ini, pengalaman diubah menjadi pengetahuan. Apa
bekerja untuk kerajinan individu, pekerjaan, atau proses dipelajari. Dalam setara
cara, yang khusus alat-alat, proses, dan produk diperiksa dalam
teknik pertama, pertambangan, dan sekolah pertanian yang mengarah ke satu set sistematis
informasi dan pengetahuan tentang bagaimana melakukan sesuatu. Teknik produksi,
dikembangkan dari akumulasi pengetahuan ini, menyebabkan pabrik-pabrik menyebabkan
konsentrasi pekerja di lokasi pusat. Kedua, Produktivitas Revolusi
(1881-Post Perang Dunia II) melihat penerapan pengetahuan untuk meningkatkan
metode kerja seperti yang kita bahas selama analisis kami Manajemen Ilmiah
awal bab ini. Selama periode ini, ada "praktis tidak ada akses
ke pendapatan kelas menengah tanpa gelar formal, yang menyatakan dengan akuisisi
pengetahuan yang hanya dapat diperoleh secara sistematis dan di sekolah "
(Drucker, 1993, hal. 42). Akhirnya, Revolusi Manajemen (pasca-Perang Dunia
II-2020) adalah melihat pekerjaan pengetahuan cepat menggantikan kerja manual. Kami telah
bergeser dari satu set pengetahuan tentang bagaimana mengelola satu set pengetahuan
atau disiplin ilmu. Kami pindah dari kerajinan untuk metodologi; ad hoc untuk pengalaman
sistem; anekdot untuk informasi; dan keterampilan ke dalam konsep yang dapat diajarkan
dan dipelajari. Dengan kata lain, kita sedang menyelesaikan gerakan dari manual
ke mental. Hal ini akan memaksa desentralisasi yang cepat untuk berinovasi dan
memanfaatkan pengetahuan. Pekerja pengetahuan mengubah informasi menjadi
pengetahuan dan kebijaksanaan untuk mendukung keputusan, tindakan, dan hasil.
Federalisme kemungkinan akan menjadi bentuk yang optimal dengan berbagai subunit,
disiplin, atau bagian melakukan menciptakan sementara didukung oleh
pusat. Ini bukan konsep hipotetis. ABB, sebuah organisasi multinasional
dari 20.000 karyawan, memiliki pusat (markas) dari 150 orang. Kami sekarang memeriksa
delapan perubahan tambahan.
Horizontal Organisasi
Organisasi menjadi lebih horisontal dan menghilangkan lapisan (Angin &
Main, 1998). Idealnya, organisasi horisontal ini berusaha untuk menghapus pemisahan
dari orang-orang dan tempat kerja ke departemen fungsional. Menggunakan budaya
kolaborasi dengan karyawan yang bekerja bersama-sama, kerja sama antara unit yang
didorong dan hirarki diratakan (Ostaff, 1999). Kebutuhan akan kecepatan,
fokus pelanggan, inovasi, dan informasi memerlukan ketergantungan lebih besar pada
jaringan daripada hirarki atau rantai komando memaksa horisontal
pendekatan. Fleksibilitas dalam struktur menjadi kritis. Bukannya secara vertikal
terintegrasi, organisasi menjadi jaringan (Angin & Main, 1998).
92 • Applied Komunikasi Organisasi
Era digital akan mencakup kelompok kerja yang terhubung secara elektronik
92 • Applied Komunikasi Organisasi
Era digital akan mencakup kelompok kerja yang terhubung secara elektronik bahkan
meskipun mereka mungkin tersebar di seluruh dunia. Pengiriman semalam konten
sekarang dapat diganti secara digital oleh keystroke dan perintah lampiran pada
komputer. Virtualisasi akan digunakan semakin untuk menentukan hasil
tanpa memerlukan kehadiran fisik kita. Tim akan memecahkan masalah, bubar
dengan cepat dan memindahkan dengan campuran yang berbeda dari pemain lain untuk bekerja pada
isu-isu. Pekerja informasi dengan berbagai peran akan melakukan tugas-tugas ad hoc menggunakan
masukan dari berbagai sumber.
Pemberdayaan
Membiarkan individu untuk menetapkan tujuan kerja mereka sendiri, membuat keputusan, dan memecahkan
masalah adalah dasar untuk pemberdayaan (lihat bab. 10 dan 11). Mungkin suatu
istilah terlalu sering digunakan, konsep ini tepat sasaran. Dan seperti disebutkan sebelumnya, karyawan merupakan
aset yang dapat meningkatkan nilai. Tapi, itu hanya bisa terjadi jika mereka diizinkan untuk
menggunakan pikiran mereka. Karyawan semakin sering dipandang sebagai organisasi
aset yang paling berharga (Branch, 1999; Caudron, 1998). Mereka didorong
untuk memulai dan berpartisipasi dalam pengambilan keputusan melalui pelatihan, pemberdayaan
untuk mengambil tindakan, dan memberikan jawaban kreatif (Conner, 1998). Dalam
organisasi tua, tingkat atas adalah pemikir dan tingkat yang lebih rendah adalah
pelaku. Pemberdayaan, dikombinasikan dengan struktur horizontal, memungkinkan setiap orang
untuk menjadi pemikir dan pelaku-kekuatan gabungan menyebabkan diberdayakan
organisasi (Gates, 1999; Jasinowski & Hamin, 1995).
Informasi dan Digital Proses
Di masa lalu, informasi cenderung mengalir ke bawah. Di masa depan, informasi
akan bergerak ke segala arah. Seperti yang telah ditunjukkan dalam bab 1, modal dan kepemilikan
aset digantikan oleh kekuatan informasi. "Meskipun istilah
mungkin terdengar, proses digital dingin adalah tentang pemberdayaan individu.
... Sebuah keyakinan dalam pemberdayaan adalah kunci untuk mendapatkan hasil maksimal dari gugup digital
sistem "(Gates, 1999, hal. 409). Dampaknya adalah universal. "Internet telah
menjadi mana-mana, sehingga perusahaan dapat terhubung dengan bakat di mana saja di
sekejap mata, di dalam atau di luar perusahaan. Perangkat lunak open-source dapat
dipetik dari rak untuk menjadi dasar dari program perangkat lunak baru atau
situs Web. Algoritma dapat digunakan untuk mengiris dan informasi pasar dadu dan
melihat tren baru "(Hamm, 2006, hal. 71). Kami meneliti tren ini lebih lengkap
dalam bab 12.
Organisasi Belajar
Sifat dinamis organisasi menggarisbawahi dampak kritis
pengetahuan dan pembelajaran. Menginformasikan dan pelatihan meningkat di yang sangat
kompetitif organisasi (Cabang, 1999). Alih-alih menggunakan "perlu tahu"
filsafat mana manajemen atas menimbun informasi dari tingkat yang lebih rendah
dan, kadang-kadang, satu sama lain, peluang diciptakan untuk meningkatkan pemahaman
Memahami Organisasi • 93 Memahami Organisasi • 93 ing, keterlibatan, dan efektivitas. "Sebuah organisasi pembelajaran terlibat dalam baru cara berkomunikasi dan berinteraksi "(Barker & Camarata, 1998, hal 445;. lihat . bab 1). Kualitas dan Pelanggan Kebanyakan organisasi memahami pentingnya kualitas. Namun, kualitas dan kepuasan pelanggan adalah target bergerak karena konsumen saat ini memiliki harapan kualitas yang lebih tinggi (Cummings & Worley, 2005). Sekarang, pelanggan dilihat sebagai sekutu, mitra, dan peserta aktif dalam penciptaan dan pengiriman produk dan jasa, bukan kelompok pasif yang dapat dengan mudah dimanipulasi. Kualitas adalah prinsip dasar sehingga bagi banyak organisasi sekarang asumsi atau bagian penting dalam melakukan bisnis. Motorola mengumumkan standar enam-sigma pada tahun 1987. Jumlah ini tidak lebih dari 3,4 kesalahan per juta bagian. Meskipun Motorola tidak mungkin untuk secara konsisten memenuhi standar ini, hal ini menunjukkan seberapa jauh kualitas telah berkembang. Bagaimana signifikan adalah standar kualitas enam-sigma? Jika kita memiliki 99,9% bebas cacat pekerjaan-jauh kurang dari enam sigma, 50 bayi yang baru lahir di Amerika Serikat akan turun di lantai oleh dokter sehari-hari; 200.000 resep yang salah akan diisi setiap tahun; dua pesawat tidak akan mendarat dengan aman setiap jam di Atlanta Hartsfield Bandara Internasional; kita akan tanpa listrik, panas, atau air selama 15 menit setiap hari; dan 22.000 kali dalam satu jam, bank akan memotong cek salah dari rekening orang lain. Dengan kata lain, "kesalahan terjadi" bukan bagian yang dapat diterima dari kualitas pelanggan perspektif. Kecepatan dan Waktu Dengan munculnya teknologi baru, kecepatan dan waktu akan tetap di garis depan perubahan organisasi. "Kecepatan yang muncul sebagai kompetitif utama senjata "(Hamm, 2006, hal. 70). Kecepatan ke pasar, penurunan pengembangan produk waktu, dan efisiensi yang lebih tinggi akan tetap landasan organisasi di abad ke-21. Upaya untuk meningkatkan efisiensi akan mengambil karena kemajuan teknologi, penghematan biaya, dan kompetisi. "Persaingan lebih intens dari sebelumnya karena munculnya pusat-pusat kekuatan Asia dan penyebaran dari mengganggu teknologi Internet yang baru dan model bisnis. Perusahaan menyadari bahwa semua perhatian mereka untuk efisiensi dalam dekade terakhir baik-baik saja-tapi itu tidak cukup hampir "(Hamm, 2006, hal. 70). Fokus Perusahaan akan berkonsentrasi pada melakukan apa yang mereka lakukan yang terbaik. Misalnya, 3M ingin memecahkan masalah inovatif. Girl Scouts of America berusaha untuk membantu seorang gadis mencapai potensi tertinggi nya. Hewlett-Packard ingin membuat teknis kontribusi untuk kemajuan dan kesejahteraan umat manusia. Mary Kay Cosmetics ingin memberikan kesempatan tak terbatas bagi perempuan. Walt Disney berusaha untuk membuat orang bahagia. Dalam daftar perusahaan yang paling dikagumi di Amerika, 94 • Applied Komunikasi Organisasi "Semua sepuluh perusahaan di atas daftar kami memiliki fokus tunggal berpikiran" (Brown, 1999, hal. 73). Wal-Mart bergerak barang secara efektif untuk 3.000 tokonya, GE berfokus pada pertumbuhan nilai pemegang saham, Microsoft mempekerjakan pekerja brilian, dan "Southwest Airlines mempromosikan budaya yang mendorong karyawan untuk memberikan jempolan layanan di tanah dan di udara "(Brown, 1999 , hal. 73). Keanekaragaman Seluruh tenaga kerja berubah seperti diuraikan sebelumnya. Pada tahun 2008, perempuan dan minoritas akan membuat 70% dari tenaga kerja yang masuk. Rumah tangga tunggal di Amerika Serikat sekarang melebihi jumlah pasangan menikah dengan anak-anak (Armand- Delille, 2006). Meskipun nilai-nilai tenaga kerja yang beragam didokumentasikan dengan baik, kita menghadapi tantangan penting dalam membuat yakin bahwa perbedaan yang dihargai. Ada kendala penting yang terus kemajuan harus diatasi termasuk mengubah budaya perusahaan yang berlaku agar lebih inklusif, meningkatkan model peran, aktif bekerja untuk mengubah stereotip dan prasangka, dan termasuk kelompok masyarakat yang terpinggirkan jaringan informal (Klimley, 1999). Tak t
Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
Bahasa lainnya
Dukungan alat penerjemahan: Afrikans, Albania, Amhara, Arab, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahasa Indonesia, Basque, Belanda, Belarussia, Bengali, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Burma, Cebuano, Ceko, Chichewa, China, Cina Tradisional, Denmark, Deteksi bahasa, Esperanto, Estonia, Farsi, Finlandia, Frisia, Gaelig, Gaelik Skotlandia, Galisia, Georgia, Gujarati, Hausa, Hawaii, Hindi, Hmong, Ibrani, Igbo, Inggris, Islan, Italia, Jawa, Jepang, Jerman, Kannada, Katala, Kazak, Khmer, Kinyarwanda, Kirghiz, Klingon, Korea, Korsika, Kreol Haiti, Kroat, Kurdi, Laos, Latin, Latvia, Lituania, Luksemburg, Magyar, Makedonia, Malagasi, Malayalam, Malta, Maori, Marathi, Melayu, Mongol, Nepal, Norsk, Odia (Oriya), Pashto, Polandia, Portugis, Prancis, Punjabi, Rumania, Rusia, Samoa, Serb, Sesotho, Shona, Sindhi, Sinhala, Slovakia, Slovenia, Somali, Spanyol, Sunda, Swahili, Swensk, Tagalog, Tajik, Tamil, Tatar, Telugu, Thai, Turki, Turkmen, Ukraina, Urdu, Uyghur, Uzbek, Vietnam, Wales, Xhosa, Yiddi, Yoruba, Yunani, Zulu, Bahasa terjemahan.
- Baju sari kenapa mahal
- 'Terima kasih ya allah, telah Engkau jad
- Melihat perempuan pake kerudung hitam da
- tidak keren
- Creo que me voy a volver loco
- Understanding Organizations • 91improve
- No creo que puedo seguir viviendo
- Understanding Organizations • 91improve
- No creo que pueda seguir viviendo
- social media was so prevalent among the
- I not know yet
- social media was so prevalent among the
- Haz algo por mi
- Orang india di Indonesia banyak yang ber
- No hay nada que pueda hacer por ti
- do you understand?yes,maam
- Bila kamu benar serius aku tunggu di ind
- Mahal dan tidak bisa di tawar
- 1,000 or more employees. “Change has bec
- Missing you so much
- 1,000 or more employees. “Change has bec
- Understanding Organizations • 91improve
- 'Terima kasih ya allah, telah Engkau jad
- menurut saya,tergantung orang tersebut y
