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Accountants have an important contr

Accountants have an important contribution to make to the debate surrounding
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). The major element of accountants’ contribution
that they have the ability to provide a mechanism for holding corporations
C.A. Tilt (B)
Flinders Business School, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia
S.O. Idowu, W.L. Filho (eds.), Professionals’ Perspectives of Corporate Social 11
Responsibility, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-02630-0_2,
C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2009
12 C.A. Tilt
accountable for what they do – holding entities accountable is, after all, what
accountants do as a matter of course. While traditionally it has been financial
accountability that is the remit of accountants, for many years now, accounting
academics have been at the forefront of research and theory on social and environmental
accounting and, more recently, practitioners, professional associations and
others have taken an interest in the topic. This body of work attempts to ‘broaden
our thinking about the role of accounting’ (Lehman, 2007, p. 35).
The term CSR encompasses a variety of issues revolving around companies’
interactions with society. The sorts of issues covered include ethics, governance,
social activities such as philanthropy and community involvement, product safety,
equal opportunities, human rights and environmental activities. When considering
CSR from the perspective of the accounting profession, such consideration
is necessarily and inextricably linked with social (and environmental) reporting
or accounting. Social accounting was itself a product, in part, of the early social
responsibility movement of the 1960s (see Drucker, 1965), but also appeared around
the same time the environmental movement emerged (Gray and Guthrie, 2007).
Interestingly, while social issues were the initial research focus of accounting academics,
these were to some extent overwhelmed by the emphasis on environmental
issues that came later, and this emphasis is reflected in the reviews that follow.
This chapter concentrates initially on research about reporting on social and environmental
issues (variously called Corporate Social Reporting (CSR – hence it is
often confused with Corporate Social Responsibility), Social and Environmental
Accounting (SEA) or Corporate Social Disclosure (CSD); more recently the terms
‘sustainability reporting’ or ‘sustainability accounting’ have become common). The
chapter provides a review of some of the research undertaken on the extent of
reporting itself, and on accountants’ perspectives on CSR and sustainability. It also
reviews the involvement of the profession of accounting in adoption and promotion
of corporate social and environmental responsibility, and more recently its
involvement in audit, assurance or verification of social and environmental reports.
The accountant’s role can traditionally be classified into three areas: the financial
accountant, the management accountant and the auditor. In terms of social and
environmental accounting, the financial accountant could be said to be primarily
interested in social and environmental aspects of assets and liabilities and to report
on them in some standard way. The management accountant is concerned with costs
and benefits associated with these issues, and the auditor in providing verification or
assurance of the social account produced (Medley, 1997; Igalens, 2006). The next
sections, however, indicate that the interest of accountants in CSR is in fact much
more wide ranging. Some see a role for accountants in improving social justice and
contributing to social and environmental benefits for society (Reynolds, 2007).
1.2 Social and Environmental Accounting
There have already been a number of extensive reviews of the social and environmental
accounting (SEA) literature (see Thomson, 2007 for a recent and novel
approach), notably (Gray et al. 1995a) and (Mathews 1997). Mathews (1997)
1 Corporate Responsibility, Accounting and Accountants 13
reviews 25 years of academic work in the area from the early 1970s, classifying
it into empirical, normative, philosophical, and various other forms of research.
Mathews (1997) provides an excellent history of the early work undertaken on
SEA, noting that in these early stages, SEA research predominantly reported ‘fairly
unsophisticated empirical studies, which attempted to measure the amount of new
information being produced and published by a limited number of enterprises’
(Mathews, 1997, p. 484). Gray et al. (1995a) show that over the period 1979–1991
social and environmental reporting steadily increased, both in terms of the number
of companies choosing to report, and the amount they reported. However, they
point out that the level of social reporting was still relatively low compared with
other forms of discretionary disclosure, concluding that ‘social and environmental
performance is still a relatively low priority for companies’ (Gray et al., 1995, p. 68).
This chapter will not revisit this early research as it has been well reviewed in other
papers, but rather will focus on more recent developments. However, one important
element of the earlier work was its explication of the concept of SEA, leading to the
definitions still used today.
Gray et al. (1987, p. ix) provide the most useful and commonly used definition
of what we mean by SEA. They describe it as:
Communicating the social and environmental effects of organizations’ economic actions to
particular interest groups within society and to society at large. As such it involves extending
the accountability of organizations (particularly companies), beyond the traditional role of
providing a financial account to the owners of capital, in particular, shareholders.
O’Dwyer (2006, p. 233) describes social accounting scholars as a group of
individuals with ‘commitment to stakeholder accountability and democracy’. The
work of these scholars views accounting as ‘a mechanism aimed at enhancing corporate
accountability and transparency to a wide range of external stakeholders,
addressing the social, environmental and ethical concerns and values of individuals
upon whom a business has a non-economic impact’ (O’Dwyer, 2006, p. 220),
hence social accounting is a major element of corporate social responsibility, linking
it with corporate social responsiveness. More recent analysis of the type and
extent of social accounting indicates the variety of reporting mechanisms, including
assurance statements, environmental, social and economic performance reports
(also called Triple P (people, planet, profit) or Triple Bottom Line reports) and
reporting within annual reports and financial statements. Also noted is the variety
in the extent and nature of the reporting, particularly across industry sectors and
between countries (Labelle et al., 2006). These differences have been shown, however,
to be unrelated to profitability, but associated with entity size and the regulatory
environment (Stanwick and Stanwick, 2006).
As social accounting in its various forms increases, so too do the frameworks
and guidelines devised to assist firms in producing social and environmental information.
The Accountability 1,000 framework, created in 1999, is a set of standards
that focus on performance indicators, targets and reporting systems. It also has
stakeholder engagement as a fundamental principle (Stanwick and Stanwick, 2006).
The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) was established to provide global guidelines
for the reporting of social and environmental information, and to ensure consistent
14 C.A. Tilt
reporting. In Australia, a guide to triple bottom line reporting to complement the
GRI was developed in 2003 by Environment Australia (Adams and Frost, 2007).
The GRI states1 its vision as being ‘that reporting on economic, environmental,
and social performance by all organizations is as routine and comparable as
financial reporting’. They provide a Sustainability Reporting Framework ‘of which
the Sustainability Reporting Guidelines are the cornerstone’ and ‘provides guidance
for organizations to use as the basis for disclosure about their sustainability
performance, and also provides stakeholders a universally-applicable, comparable
framework in which to understand disclosed information’. There are 11 reporting
principles, encompassing similar attributes to those espoused for financial
accounting, such as, auditability, completeness, relevance, accuracy, neutrality, comparability,
and timeliness; and also includes transparency, inclusiveness, clarity and
context (Stanwick and Stanwick, 2006).
Reporting under the GRI does have ‘levels of application’ however, so just
because a company reports using the GRI framework, it does not mean it will report
at the same level as another organisation using the GRI. Part of the GRI requirements
is that a company must disclose what level of reporting it is using. Level
A is the most comprehensive. A-level companies must respond to every core indicator,
either reporting on it, or explaining why it is not material to their business.
At level B, companies are asked to report on at least 20 indicators, taking at least
one from each area. At the lowest level, C, companies must report on just ten indicators.
Unlike the higher levels, C-level companies do not have to disclose their
management approach to sustainability. Neither must they comply with some of
the guidelines’ principles, including ‘accuracy’, or commit to producing a balanced
report.
The GRI is probably the most successful attempt to date, at standardising the
reporting of social and environmental information globally (Adams and Frost,
2007). It does not however, come without its critics. Criticisms range from it being
labelled as too complex, particularly when first introduced, to being in danger of
watering down its own commitment to promoting transparent reporting, since making
changes recently. It has also been criticized for having flawed
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Accountants have an important contribution to make to the debate surroundingCorporate Social Responsibility (CSR). The major element of accountants’ contributionthat they have the ability to provide a mechanism for holding corporationsC.A. Tilt (B)Flinders Business School, Flinders University, Adelaide, AustraliaS.O. Idowu, W.L. Filho (eds.), Professionals’ Perspectives of Corporate Social 11Responsibility, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-02630-0_2,C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 200912 C.A. Tiltaccountable for what they do – holding entities accountable is, after all, whataccountants do as a matter of course. While traditionally it has been financialaccountability that is the remit of accountants, for many years now, accountingacademics have been at the forefront of research and theory on social and environmentalaccounting and, more recently, practitioners, professional associations andothers have taken an interest in the topic. This body of work attempts to ‘broadenour thinking about the role of accounting’ (Lehman, 2007, p. 35).The term CSR encompasses a variety of issues revolving around companies’interactions with society. The sorts of issues covered include ethics, governance,social activities such as philanthropy and community involvement, product safety,equal opportunities, human rights and environmental activities. When consideringCSR from the perspective of the accounting profession, such considerationis necessarily and inextricably linked with social (and environmental) reportingor accounting. Social accounting was itself a product, in part, of the early socialresponsibility movement of the 1960s (see Drucker, 1965), but also appeared aroundthe same time the environmental movement emerged (Gray and Guthrie, 2007).Interestingly, while social issues were the initial research focus of accounting academics,these were to some extent overwhelmed by the emphasis on environmentalissues that came later, and this emphasis is reflected in the reviews that follow.This chapter concentrates initially on research about reporting on social and environmentalissues (variously called Corporate Social Reporting (CSR – hence it isoften confused with Corporate Social Responsibility), Social and EnvironmentalAccounting (SEA) or Corporate Social Disclosure (CSD); more recently the terms‘sustainability reporting’ or ‘sustainability accounting’ have become common). Thechapter provides a review of some of the research undertaken on the extent ofreporting itself, and on accountants’ perspectives on CSR and sustainability. It alsoreviews the involvement of the profession of accounting in adoption and promotionof corporate social and environmental responsibility, and more recently itsinvolvement in audit, assurance or verification of social and environmental reports.The accountant’s role can traditionally be classified into three areas: the financialaccountant, the management accountant and the auditor. In terms of social andenvironmental accounting, the financial accountant could be said to be primarilyinterested in social and environmental aspects of assets and liabilities and to reporton them in some standard way. The management accountant is concerned with costsand benefits associated with these issues, and the auditor in providing verification orassurance of the social account produced (Medley, 1997; Igalens, 2006). The nextsections, however, indicate that the interest of accountants in CSR is in fact muchmore wide ranging. Some see a role for accountants in improving social justice andcontributing to social and environmental benefits for society (Reynolds, 2007).1.2 Social and Environmental AccountingThere have already been a number of extensive reviews of the social and environmentalaccounting (SEA) literature (see Thomson, 2007 for a recent and novelapproach), notably (Gray et al. 1995a) and (Mathews 1997). Mathews (1997)1 Corporate Responsibility, Accounting and Accountants 13reviews 25 years of academic work in the area from the early 1970s, classifyingit into empirical, normative, philosophical, and various other forms of research.Mathews (1997) provides an excellent history of the early work undertaken onSEA, noting that in these early stages, SEA research predominantly reported ‘fairlyunsophisticated empirical studies, which attempted to measure the amount of newinformation being produced and published by a limited number of enterprises’
(Mathews, 1997, p. 484). Gray et al. (1995a) show that over the period 1979–1991
social and environmental reporting steadily increased, both in terms of the number
of companies choosing to report, and the amount they reported. However, they
point out that the level of social reporting was still relatively low compared with
other forms of discretionary disclosure, concluding that ‘social and environmental
performance is still a relatively low priority for companies’ (Gray et al., 1995, p. 68).
This chapter will not revisit this early research as it has been well reviewed in other
papers, but rather will focus on more recent developments. However, one important
element of the earlier work was its explication of the concept of SEA, leading to the
definitions still used today.
Gray et al. (1987, p. ix) provide the most useful and commonly used definition
of what we mean by SEA. They describe it as:
Communicating the social and environmental effects of organizations’ economic actions to
particular interest groups within society and to society at large. As such it involves extending
the accountability of organizations (particularly companies), beyond the traditional role of
providing a financial account to the owners of capital, in particular, shareholders.
O’Dwyer (2006, p. 233) describes social accounting scholars as a group of
individuals with ‘commitment to stakeholder accountability and democracy’. The
work of these scholars views accounting as ‘a mechanism aimed at enhancing corporate
accountability and transparency to a wide range of external stakeholders,
addressing the social, environmental and ethical concerns and values of individuals
upon whom a business has a non-economic impact’ (O’Dwyer, 2006, p. 220),
hence social accounting is a major element of corporate social responsibility, linking
it with corporate social responsiveness. More recent analysis of the type and
extent of social accounting indicates the variety of reporting mechanisms, including
assurance statements, environmental, social and economic performance reports
(also called Triple P (people, planet, profit) or Triple Bottom Line reports) and
reporting within annual reports and financial statements. Also noted is the variety
in the extent and nature of the reporting, particularly across industry sectors and
between countries (Labelle et al., 2006). These differences have been shown, however,
to be unrelated to profitability, but associated with entity size and the regulatory
environment (Stanwick and Stanwick, 2006).
As social accounting in its various forms increases, so too do the frameworks
and guidelines devised to assist firms in producing social and environmental information.
The Accountability 1,000 framework, created in 1999, is a set of standards
that focus on performance indicators, targets and reporting systems. It also has
stakeholder engagement as a fundamental principle (Stanwick and Stanwick, 2006).
The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) was established to provide global guidelines
for the reporting of social and environmental information, and to ensure consistent
14 C.A. Tilt
reporting. In Australia, a guide to triple bottom line reporting to complement the
GRI was developed in 2003 by Environment Australia (Adams and Frost, 2007).
The GRI states1 its vision as being ‘that reporting on economic, environmental,
and social performance by all organizations is as routine and comparable as
financial reporting’. They provide a Sustainability Reporting Framework ‘of which
the Sustainability Reporting Guidelines are the cornerstone’ and ‘provides guidance
for organizations to use as the basis for disclosure about their sustainability
performance, and also provides stakeholders a universally-applicable, comparable
framework in which to understand disclosed information’. There are 11 reporting
principles, encompassing similar attributes to those espoused for financial
accounting, such as, auditability, completeness, relevance, accuracy, neutrality, comparability,
and timeliness; and also includes transparency, inclusiveness, clarity and
context (Stanwick and Stanwick, 2006).
Reporting under the GRI does have ‘levels of application’ however, so just
because a company reports using the GRI framework, it does not mean it will report
at the same level as another organisation using the GRI. Part of the GRI requirements
is that a company must disclose what level of reporting it is using. Level
A is the most comprehensive. A-level companies must respond to every core indicator,
either reporting on it, or explaining why it is not material to their business.
At level B, companies are asked to report on at least 20 indicators, taking at least
one from each area. At the lowest level, C, companies must report on just ten indicators.
Unlike the higher levels, C-level companies do not have to disclose their
management approach to sustainability. Neither must they comply with some of
the guidelines’ principles, including ‘accuracy’, or commit to producing a balanced
report.
The GRI is probably the most successful attempt to date, at standardising the
reporting of social and environmental information globally (Adams and Frost,
2007). It does not however, come without its critics. Criticisms range from it being
labelled as too complex, particularly when first introduced, to being in danger of
watering down its own commitment to promoting transparent reporting, since making
changes recently. It has also been criticized for having flawed
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Akuntan memiliki kontribusi penting untuk membuat ke perdebatan seputar
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). Unsur utama dari kontribusi akuntan
'bahwa mereka memiliki kemampuan untuk menyediakan mekanisme untuk memegang perusahaan
CA Tilt (B)
Flinders Business School, Universitas Flinders, Adelaide, Australia
SO Idowu, WL Filho (eds.), Perspektif Profesional 'Corporate Social 11
Responsibility, DOI 10,1007 / 978-3-642-02630-0_2,
C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2009
12 CA Tilt
jawab atas apa yang mereka lakukan - memegang badan akuntabel adalah, setelah semua, apa
akuntan lakukan sebagai hal yang biasa. Sementara tradisional telah keuangan
akuntabilitas yang mengampuni dari akuntan, selama bertahun-tahun sekarang, akuntansi
akademisi telah berada di garis depan penelitian dan teori tentang sosial dan lingkungan
akuntansi dan, baru-baru ini, praktisi, asosiasi profesi dan
lain-lain telah mengambil minat di topik. Ini tubuh bekerja mencoba untuk 'memperluas
pemikiran kita tentang peran akuntansi' (Lehman, 2007, hal. 35).
Istilah CSR meliputi berbagai isu seputar perusahaan
'interaksi dengan masyarakat. The macam masalah yang dibahas meliputi etika, tata kelola,
kegiatan sosial seperti filantropi dan keterlibatan masyarakat, keamanan produk,
kesempatan yang sama, hak asasi manusia dan kegiatan lingkungan. Ketika mempertimbangkan
CSR dari perspektif profesi akuntansi, pertimbangan seperti
ini tentu terkait erat dengan dan pelaporan sosial (dan lingkungan)
atau akuntansi. Akuntansi sosial itu sendiri produk, sebagian, dari sosial awal
gerakan tanggung jawab tahun 1960 (lihat Drucker, 1965), tetapi juga muncul sekitar
waktu yang sama gerakan lingkungan muncul (Gray dan Guthrie, 2007).
Menariknya, sementara isu-isu sosial menjadi fokus penelitian awal dari akademisi akuntansi,
ini adalah untuk batas tertentu kewalahan oleh penekanan pada lingkungan
isu-isu yang datang kemudian, dan penekanan ini tercermin dalam ulasan berikut.
Bab ini berkonsentrasi awalnya pada penelitian tentang pelaporan sosial dan lingkungan
masalah ( berbagai cara yang disebut Perusahaan Pelaporan Sosial (CSR - maka itu
sering bingung dengan Corporate Social Responsibility), Sosial dan Lingkungan
Akuntansi (SEA) atau Perusahaan Pengungkapan Sosial (CSD); baru-baru ini istilah
'keberlanjutan pelaporan' atau 'akuntansi keberlanjutan' telah menjadi umum ). The
Bab memberikan tinjauan dari beberapa penelitian yang dilakukan pada tingkat
pelaporan itu sendiri, dan pada perspektif akuntan 'pada CSR dan keberlanjutan. Hal ini juga
mengkaji keterlibatan profesi akuntansi dalam adopsi dan promosi
dari tanggung jawab sosial dan lingkungan perusahaan, dan baru-baru
nya. Keterlibatan dalam audit, jaminan atau verifikasi laporan sosial dan lingkungan
Peran akuntan dapat secara tradisional diklasifikasikan menjadi tiga area: keuangan
akuntan, akuntan manajemen dan auditor. Dalam hal sosial dan
akuntansi lingkungan, akuntan keuangan dapat dikatakan terutama
tertarik pada aspek sosial dan lingkungan dari aset dan kewajiban untuk melaporkan
pada mereka dalam beberapa cara standar. Akuntan manajemen berkaitan dengan biaya
dan manfaat yang terkait dengan masalah ini, dan auditor dalam memberikan verifikasi atau
jaminan dari akun sosial yang dihasilkan (Medley, 1997; Igalens, 2006). Berikutnya
bagian, bagaimanapun, menunjukkan bahwa kepentingan akuntan di CSR sebenarnya jauh
lebih luas. Beberapa melihat peran akuntan dalam meningkatkan keadilan sosial dan
berkontribusi terhadap manfaat sosial dan lingkungan bagi masyarakat (Reynolds, 2007).
1.2 Sosial dan Lingkungan Akuntansi
Sudah ada sejumlah tinjauan ekstensif dari sosial dan lingkungan
akuntansi (SEA) sastra ( lihat Thomson, 2007 baru-baru ini dan novel
pendekatan), terutama (Gray et al. 1995a) dan (Mathews 1997). Mathews (1997)
1 Tanggung Jawab, Akuntansi dan Akuntan 13
ulasan 25 tahun kerja akademis di daerah dari awal 1970-an, mengelompokkan
menjadi empiris, normatif, filosofis, dan berbagai bentuk lain dari penelitian.
Mathews (1997) memberikan sejarah yang sangat baik dari karya awal yang dilakukan pada
SEA, mencatat bahwa dalam tahap awal, penelitian SEA didominasi dilaporkan 'cukup
studi empiris canggih, yang berusaha untuk mengukur jumlah baru
informasi yang diproduksi dan diterbitkan oleh sejumlah perusahaan'
(Mathews, 1997, p. 484). Gray et al. (1995a) menunjukkan bahwa selama periode 1979-1991
pelaporan sosial dan lingkungan terus meningkat, baik dari segi jumlah
perusahaan memilih untuk melaporkan, dan jumlah mereka melaporkan. Namun, mereka
menunjukkan bahwa tingkat pelaporan sosial masih relatif rendah dibandingkan dengan
bentuk lain dari pengungkapan diskresioner, menyimpulkan bahwa 'sosial dan lingkungan
kinerja masih prioritas relatif rendah untuk perusahaan' (Gray et al., 1995, p. 68 ).
Bab ini tidak akan kembali penelitian awal ini seperti yang telah baik ditinjau di lain
kertas, melainkan akan fokus pada perkembangan yang lebih baru. Namun, salah satu yang penting
elemen dari karya sebelumnya adalah penjelasan atas konsep SEA, yang mengarah ke
definisi masih digunakan sampai sekarang.
Gray et al. (1987, p. Ix) memberikan definisi yang paling berguna dan sering digunakan
dari apa yang kita maksud dengan SEA. Mereka menggambarkannya sebagai:
Berkomunikasi efek sosial dan lingkungan dari tindakan ekonomi organisasi untuk
kepentingan kelompok tertentu dalam masyarakat dan untuk masyarakat luas. Karena itu melibatkan memperluas
akuntabilitas organisasi (khususnya perusahaan), di luar peran tradisional
menyediakan rekening keuangan kepada pemilik modal, khususnya, pemegang saham.
O'Dwyer (2006, p. 233) menjelaskan sarjana akuntansi sosial sebagai sekelompok
individu dengan komitmen untuk akuntabilitas pemangku kepentingan dan demokrasi '. The
karya ulama memandang akuntansi sebagai 'mekanisme bertujuan untuk meningkatkan corporate
akuntabilitas dan transparansi untuk berbagai pemangku kepentingan eksternal,
mengatasi masalah sosial, lingkungan dan etika dan nilai-nilai individu
kepada siapa bisnis memiliki dampak non-ekonomi' ( O'Dwyer, 2006, hal. 220),
maka akuntansi sosial adalah elemen utama dari tanggung jawab sosial perusahaan, yang menghubungkan
dengan respon sosial perusahaan. Analisis terbaru lebih dari jenis dan
tingkat akuntansi sosial menunjukkan berbagai mekanisme pelaporan, termasuk
laporan jaminan, laporan kinerja lingkungan, sosial dan ekonomi
(juga disebut Tiga P (people, planet, profit) atau laporan Triple Bottom Line) dan
pelaporan dalam laporan tahunan dan laporan keuangan. Juga mencatat adalah berbagai
dalam tingkat dan sifat pelaporan, terutama di sektor industri dan
antar negara (Labelle et al., 2006). Perbedaan ini telah ditunjukkan, namun,
tidak terkait dengan profitabilitas, tetapi terkait dengan ukuran badan dan peraturan
lingkungan (Stanwick dan Stanwick, 2006).
Seperti akuntansi sosial dalam bentuk berbagai meningkat, sehingga terlalu melakukan kerangka
dan pedoman dirancang untuk membantu perusahaan dalam memproduksi informasi sosial dan lingkungan.
The Akuntabilitas 1.000 kerangka, diciptakan pada tahun 1999, adalah satu set standar
yang berfokus pada indikator kinerja, target dan sistem pelaporan. Ia juga memiliki
keterlibatan pemangku kepentingan sebagai prinsip dasar (Stanwick dan Stanwick, 2006).
Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) didirikan untuk memberikan panduan global yang
untuk pelaporan informasi sosial dan lingkungan, dan untuk memastikan konsisten
14 CA Tilt
pelaporan. Di Australia, panduan untuk tiga kali lipat pelaporan bottom line untuk melengkapi
GRI dikembangkan pada tahun 2003 oleh Lingkungan Australia (Adams dan Frost, 2007).
GRI states1 visinya sebagai 'bahwa pelaporan pada ekonomi, lingkungan,
kinerja dan sosial oleh semua organisasi adalah sebagai rutinitas dan sebanding sebagai
pelaporan keuangan '. Mereka menyediakan Kerangka Sustainability Reporting 'yang
Reporting Guidelines Keberlanjutan adalah batu penjuru' dan 'memberikan panduan
untuk organisasi untuk digunakan sebagai dasar untuk pengungkapan tentang keberlanjutan mereka
kinerja, dan juga menyediakan pemangku kepentingan universal-yang berlaku, sebanding
kerangka di mana untuk memahami informasi yang diungkapkan '. Ada 11 laporan
prinsip, meliputi atribut mirip dengan yang dianut untuk keuangan
akuntansi, seperti, auditability, kelengkapan, relevansi, akurasi, netralitas, komparabilitas,
dan ketepatan waktu; dan juga termasuk transparansi, inklusifitas, kejelasan dan
konteks (Stanwick dan Stanwick, 2006).
Pelaporan bawah GRI tidak memiliki 'tingkat aplikasi' Namun, jadi hanya
karena sebuah perusahaan laporan menggunakan kerangka GRI, itu tidak berarti itu akan melaporkan
pada tingkat yang sama seperti organisasi lain menggunakan GRI. Bagian dari persyaratan GRI
adalah bahwa perusahaan harus mengungkapkan apa tingkat pelaporan itu menggunakan. Tingkat
A adalah yang paling komprehensif. A-level perusahaan harus menanggapi setiap indikator inti,
baik melaporkan hal itu, atau menjelaskan mengapa tidak material untuk bisnis mereka.
Pada tingkat B, perusahaan diminta untuk melaporkan setidaknya 20 indikator, mengambil setidaknya
satu dari masing-masing daerah. Pada tingkat terendah, C, perusahaan harus melaporkan hanya sepuluh indikator.
Berbeda dengan tingkat yang lebih tinggi, perusahaan C-level tidak perlu mengungkapkan mereka
pendekatan manajemen untuk keberlanjutan. Mereka tidak harus mematuhi beberapa
pedoman 'prinsip, termasuk' akurasi ', atau berkomitmen untuk memproduksi seimbang
laporan.
GRI mungkin adalah upaya paling sukses hingga saat ini, di standarisasi
pelaporan informasi sosial dan lingkungan global (Adams dan Frost ,
2007). Namun tidak, datang tanpa kritik. Kritik berkisar dari itu yang
diberi label sebagai terlalu rumit, terutama ketika pertama kali diperkenalkan, menjadi dalam bahaya
mempermudah komitmen sendiri untuk mempromosikan pelaporan yang transparan, karena membuat
perubahan baru-baru ini. Ini juga telah dikritik karena telah cacat
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