7.1 BackgroundLinguistic ethnography is a theoretical and analytical f terjemahan - 7.1 BackgroundLinguistic ethnography is a theoretical and analytical f Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

7.1 BackgroundLinguistic ethnograph

7.1 Background
Linguistic ethnography is a theoretical and analytical framework which takes an epistemological position broadly aligned with social constructivist and post-structuralist approaches by critiquing essentialist accounts of social life (Creese, 2008; Rampton, 2007). But it also draws widely on work in linguistic anthropology (Hymes, 1968; Erickson, 2004; Gumperz, 1982; Silverstein, 2003; Wortham, 2003). Rampton argues that linguistic ethnography is ‘a site of encounter where a number of established lines of research interact, pushed together by circumstance, open to the recognition of new affinities, and sufficiently familiar with one another to treat differences with equanimity’ (2007: 585). The mention of old familiarities and new affinities captures well linguistic ethnography’s pedigree in anthropological linguistics with which it shares a theoretical base, as well as its more open and utilitarian approach to forging new connections.
Oriented towards these particular epistemological and methodological traditions in the study of social life, linguistic ethnography argues that ethnography can benefit from the analytical frameworks provided by linguistics, while linguistics can benefit from the processes of reflexive sensitivity required in ethnography (see section 7.2). This chapter will focus mainly on linguistic ethnography’s contribution to interactional studies. However, in addition to the study of interaction, the study of situated literacy practices is also well represented in linguistic ethnography where the focus is on community-based literacy research (Barton and Hamilton, 1998; Gregory and Williams, 2000), multilingual literacy (Martin-Jones and Jones, 2000) and cross-cultural perspectives on literacy (Street, 1984). As with interactional studies in linguistic ethnography, such research starts from an understanding of literacy as social practice, that is, looks at how people actually use literacy in their lifeworlds and everyday routines, rather than viewing literacy as a measurable cognitive achievement concerned predominantly with educational success.
7.2 Linguistic ethnography and interaction
Linguistic ethnography conjoins two fields of study arguing that there is more to be gained in their unison than in their separation. Ethnography is said to be enhanced by the detailed technical analysis which linguistic brings, while linguistics is said to be enhanced by attention to context. Ethnography offers linguistics a non-deterministic perspective on data, while linguistics offers ethnography a range of established procedures for identifying discursive structures (Rampton, 2007). Rampton et al. (2004) argue for ‘tying ethnography down and opening linguistics up’ (p. 4) and for an enhanced sense of the strategic value of discourse analysis in ethnography. According to this argument, ethnography provides linguistics with a close reading of context not necessarily represented in some kinds of interactional analysis (such as Conversation Analysis (CA) and systemic functional discourse analysis (SFDA)), while linguistics provides an authoritative analysis of language use not typically available through participant observation and the taking of fieldnotes (p. 6).
The ethnographic approach is one which sees the analysis of small phenomena as set against an analysis of big phenomena, and in which ‘both levels 140 Research Methods in Linguistics can only be understood in terms of one another’ (Blommaert, 2005: 16). For example, Creese (2005) describes the interactional practices of teachers in multi-adult classrooms, and shows how teachers’ interactional practices unwittingly reproduce structural hierarchies in schools. Using linguistic ethnography, she illustrates how facilitation pedagogies best suited for language teaching and learning hold little currency in a context where pedagogies of transmission dominate classroom practices. Creese’s study shows how small phenomena, such as the interactional differences between teachers, can only be understood against an analysis of big phenomena: the systemic and structural privileging of curriculum transmission.
A linguistic ethnographic analysis then attempts to combine close detail of local action and interaction as embedded in a wider social world. A further example of this is Maybin’s work (2006) on primary school classrooms, where she explores the relationship between the multilayered ecology of the classroom and the dialogic possibilities that intersecting children’s voices create. Through a combination of linguistic and ethnographic analysis of children’s voices in and out of schools, Maybin found that ‘meaning-making emerges as an ongoing dialogic process at a number of different interrelated levels: dialogues within utterances and between utterances, dialogues between voices cutting across utterance boundaries and dialogues with other voices from the past’ (2006: 24).
7.3 Questions and key issues in linguistic ethnography
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7.1 BackgroundLinguistic ethnography is a theoretical and analytical framework which takes an epistemological position broadly aligned with social constructivist and post-structuralist approaches by critiquing essentialist accounts of social life (Creese, 2008; Rampton, 2007). But it also draws widely on work in linguistic anthropology (Hymes, 1968; Erickson, 2004; Gumperz, 1982; Silverstein, 2003; Wortham, 2003). Rampton argues that linguistic ethnography is ‘a site of encounter where a number of established lines of research interact, pushed together by circumstance, open to the recognition of new affinities, and sufficiently familiar with one another to treat differences with equanimity’ (2007: 585). The mention of old familiarities and new affinities captures well linguistic ethnography’s pedigree in anthropological linguistics with which it shares a theoretical base, as well as its more open and utilitarian approach to forging new connections.Oriented towards these particular epistemological and methodological traditions in the study of social life, linguistic ethnography argues that ethnography can benefit from the analytical frameworks provided by linguistics, while linguistics can benefit from the processes of reflexive sensitivity required in ethnography (see section 7.2). This chapter will focus mainly on linguistic ethnography’s contribution to interactional studies. However, in addition to the study of interaction, the study of situated literacy practices is also well represented in linguistic ethnography where the focus is on community-based literacy research (Barton and Hamilton, 1998; Gregory and Williams, 2000), multilingual literacy (Martin-Jones and Jones, 2000) and cross-cultural perspectives on literacy (Street, 1984). As with interactional studies in linguistic ethnography, such research starts from an understanding of literacy as social practice, that is, looks at how people actually use literacy in their lifeworlds and everyday routines, rather than viewing literacy as a measurable cognitive achievement concerned predominantly with educational success.7.2 Linguistic ethnography and interactionLinguistic ethnography conjoins two fields of study arguing that there is more to be gained in their unison than in their separation. Ethnography is said to be enhanced by the detailed technical analysis which linguistic brings, while linguistics is said to be enhanced by attention to context. Ethnography offers linguistics a non-deterministic perspective on data, while linguistics offers ethnography a range of established procedures for identifying discursive structures (Rampton, 2007). Rampton et al. (2004) argue for ‘tying ethnography down and opening linguistics up’ (p. 4) and for an enhanced sense of the strategic value of discourse analysis in ethnography. According to this argument, ethnography provides linguistics with a close reading of context not necessarily represented in some kinds of interactional analysis (such as Conversation Analysis (CA) and systemic functional discourse analysis (SFDA)), while linguistics provides an authoritative analysis of language use not typically available through participant observation and the taking of fieldnotes (p. 6). The ethnographic approach is one which sees the analysis of small phenomena as set against an analysis of big phenomena, and in which ‘both levels 140 Research Methods in Linguistics can only be understood in terms of one another’ (Blommaert, 2005: 16). For example, Creese (2005) describes the interactional practices of teachers in multi-adult classrooms, and shows how teachers’ interactional practices unwittingly reproduce structural hierarchies in schools. Using linguistic ethnography, she illustrates how facilitation pedagogies best suited for language teaching and learning hold little currency in a context where pedagogies of transmission dominate classroom practices. Creese’s study shows how small phenomena, such as the interactional differences between teachers, can only be understood against an analysis of big phenomena: the systemic and structural privileging of curriculum transmission.A linguistic ethnographic analysis then attempts to combine close detail of local action and interaction as embedded in a wider social world. A further example of this is Maybin’s work (2006) on primary school classrooms, where she explores the relationship between the multilayered ecology of the classroom and the dialogic possibilities that intersecting children’s voices create. Through a combination of linguistic and ethnographic analysis of children’s voices in and out of schools, Maybin found that ‘meaning-making emerges as an ongoing dialogic process at a number of different interrelated levels: dialogues within utterances and between utterances, dialogues between voices cutting across utterance boundaries and dialogues with other voices from the past’ (2006: 24).
7.3 Questions and key issues in linguistic ethnography
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7.1 Latar Belakang
etnografi Linguistik adalah kerangka teoritis dan analitis yang mengambil posisi epistemologis luas selaras dengan konstruktivis sosial dan pasca-strukturalis pendekatan dengan mengkritisi rekening esensialis kehidupan sosial (Keris, 2008; Rampton, 2007). Tetapi juga menarik banyak pekerjaan di bidang antropologi linguistik (Hymes, 1968; Erickson, 2004; Gumperz, 1982; Silverstein, 2003; Wortham, 2003). Rampton berpendapat bahwa etnografi linguistik adalah 'situs pertemuan di mana sejumlah garis didirikan berinteraksi penelitian, bersama-sama dengan keadaan, terbuka untuk pengakuan afinitas baru, dan cukup akrab dengan satu sama lain untuk mengobati perbedaan dengan tenang' (2007: 585 ). Penyebutan familiarities lama dan afinitas baru menangkap silsilah juga etnografi linguistik dalam linguistik antropologi dengan yang saham dasar teoritis, serta pendekatan yang lebih terbuka dan utilitarian untuk menempa hubungan baru.
Berorientasi terhadap ini epistemologis tertentu dan tradisi metodologis dalam studi kehidupan sosial, etnografi linguistik berpendapat bahwa etnografi bisa mendapatkan keuntungan dari kerangka kerja analitis yang disediakan oleh linguistik, sedangkan linguistik bisa mendapatkan keuntungan dari proses sensitivitas refleksif diperlukan dalam etnografi (lihat bagian 7.2). Bab ini akan fokus terutama pada kontribusi linguistik etnografi untuk penelitian interaksional. Namun, di samping untuk mempelajari interaksi, studi praktik keaksaraan terletak juga diwakili dalam etnografi linguistik di mana fokusnya adalah pada penelitian keaksaraan berbasis masyarakat (Barton dan Hamilton, 1998; Gregory dan Williams, 2000), keaksaraan multibahasa ( Martin-Jones dan Jones, 2000) dan perspektif lintas-budaya pada literasi (Street, 1984). Seperti penelitian interaksional dalam etnografi linguistik, penelitian tersebut dimulai dari pemahaman tentang keaksaraan sebagai praktek sosial, yaitu, melihat bagaimana orang benar-benar menggunakan literasi di lifeworlds mereka dan rutinitas sehari-hari, bukan melihat keaksaraan sebagai prestasi kognitif diukur bersangkutan terutama dengan pendidikan sukses.
7.2 etnografi Linguistic dan interaksi
Linguistic etnografi conjoins dua bidang studi menyatakan bahwa ada lebih yang bisa diperoleh serempak mereka daripada di perpisahan mereka. Etnografi dikatakan ditingkatkan oleh analisis teknis rinci yang membawa linguistik, sedangkan linguistik dikatakan ditingkatkan dengan memperhatikan konteks. Etnografi menawarkan linguistik perspektif non-deterministik pada data, sementara linguistik menawarkan etnografi berbagai prosedur yang telah ditetapkan untuk mengidentifikasi struktur diskursif (Rampton, 2007). Rampton et al. (2004) berpendapat untuk 'mengikat etnografi bawah dan membuka linguistik up' (hal. 4) dan untuk rasa yang disempurnakan nilai strategis analisis wacana dalam etnografi. Menurut argumen ini, etnografi memberikan linguistik dengan membaca dekat konteks belum tentu diwakili dalam beberapa jenis analisis interaksional (seperti Conversation Analysis (CA) dan analisis wacana fungsional sistemik (SFDA)), sedangkan linguistik memberikan analisis otoritatif penggunaan bahasa tidak biasanya tersedia melalui observasi partisipan dan pengambilan catatan lapangan (p. 6).
pendekatan etnografis adalah salah satu yang melihat analisis fenomena kecil sebagaimana terhadap analisis fenomena besar, dan di mana 'baik di tingkat 140 Metode Penelitian dalam Linguistik bisa hanya bisa dipahami dalam hal satu sama lain '(BLOMMAERT, 2005: 16). Misalnya, Keris (2005) menggambarkan praktek interaksional guru di kelas multi-dewasa, dan menunjukkan bagaimana praktek interaksional guru tanpa disadari mereproduksi hirarki struktural di sekolah-sekolah. Menggunakan etnografi linguistik, dia menggambarkan bagaimana fasilitasi pedagogi paling cocok untuk pengajaran bahasa dan belajar memegang mata uang kecil dalam konteks di mana pedagogi dari praktek kelas transmisi mendominasi. Studi Keris berisi fenomena seberapa kecil, seperti perbedaan interaksional antara guru, hanya dapat dipahami terhadap analisis fenomena besar: privileging sistemik dan struktural transmisi kurikulum.
Sebuah analisis etnografis linguistik kemudian mencoba untuk menggabungkan rinci dekat aksi lokal dan interaksi sebagai tertanam dalam dunia sosial yang lebih luas. Contoh lebih lanjut dari ini adalah pekerjaan Maybin (2006) di ruang kelas sekolah dasar, di mana dia mengeksplorasi hubungan antara ekologi berlapis-lapis dari kelas dan kemungkinan dialogis bahwa suara berpotongan anak-anak buat. Melalui kombinasi analisis linguistik dan etnografi dari suara anak-anak masuk dan keluar dari sekolah, Maybin menemukan bahwa 'makna pembuatan muncul sebagai proses dialogis yang sedang berlangsung di sejumlah tingkatan saling berbeda: dialog dalam ucapan-ucapan dan antara ucapan-ucapan, dialog antara suara memotong seluruh batas ucapan dan dialog dengan suara-suara lain dari masa lalu '(2006: 24).
7.3 Pertanyaan dan isu-isu kunci dalam etnografi linguistik
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