The above sets of studies have used the Efficient Market Hypothesis (E terjemahan - The above sets of studies have used the Efficient Market Hypothesis (E Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

The above sets of studies have used

The above sets of studies have used the Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH) and the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) as their underlying foundation. Furthermore, it was assumed that contracting costs5 were zero. Overall, these studies raised doubts about the empirical descriptiveness of the following assumptions underlying normative prescriptions during the 1960s: (a) There is only one source of information about a company, (b) earnings numbers are useless because they were not prepared according to a single basis, and (c) it is possible to mislead the stock market by manipulating the earnings number through accounting choices. Information content studies reveal that these assumptions are unlikely to be descriptive of the real world. The EMH implies that there is competition for information. There are alternative sources of information about the firm such as information releases by management and interviews of corporate personnel by analysts. The observed association between unexpected earnings and abnormal rate of return reveals that the earnings number reflects factors relevant to the valuation of stock despite not being calculated on a single basis. Furthermore, the believers in EMH and CAPM argued that it is not possible to systematically mislead the market by accounting changes. The market differentiates between accounting changes having cash flow effects and changes with no cash flow effects. Thus, the mechanistic hypothesis was unlikely to be descriptive of the real world.

As noted above, early studies could not successfully discriminate between the no-effects hypothesis and the mechanistic hypothesis. This did not lead to the rejection of the no-effects hypothesis. Instead the results led the researchers to examine the methodological aspects of those studies and question the empirical validity of one important assumption (i.e., zero contracting costs) underlying the tests. This has led to a breakthrough in accounting research. It has long been held in economics that contracting costs are non-zero (Coase, 1937). Accounting researchers have abandoned the assumption of zero transaction and information costs.

This breakthrough opened the door to possibilities for explanation and prediction of variation of accounting practice across firms. The major idea behind this literature is that the firm is a nexus of contracts, and accounting methods constitute an integral part of this set of contracts (Sunder, 1997). Accounting numbers are used to write, monitor, and enforce contracts (Sunder, 1997). Viewed in this way, accounting can affect firm value via their impact on contracts. Accounting is no longer mere form as was assumed under the EMH and CAPM regime6. The dropping of the assumption of zero contracting costs has shown that accounting methods have the potential to affect the cash flow to the contracting parties. It thus provides incentives to the contracting parties to influence accounting methods.

Positive Accounting Theory and Science

139


Though the above idea is general, early empirical studies of accounting choices investigated the impact of variables related to earnings-based bonus plans, debt, and the political process affecting the firm. Three major hypotheses tested are as follows: (a) the bonus plan hypothesis, (b) the debt-equity hypothesis, and (c) political cost hypothesis (Watts & Zimmerman, 1986). The bonus plan hypothesis states that firms with bonus plans choose accounting methods so as to increase current period earnings. The debt-equity hypothesis says that firms with higher debt-equity ratios choose accounting procedures so as to shift earnings from future periods to the current period. The political cost hypothesis says that large firms rather than small firms choose accounting methods so as to shift earnings from the current period to future periods. Size has been used as the proxy variable for political attention in early studies (e.g., Watts & Zimmerman, 1986). Underlying all these hypotheses is the assumption of non-zero contracting costs (Watts & Zimmerman, 1986). Empirical evidence is generally consistent with these hypotheses (Watts & Zimmerman, 1986, chapter 11; Christie, 1990). Another stream of research examines the stock price effects of accounting changes – both mandated and voluntary (Watts
& Zimmerman, 1986, chapter 12).

The initial studies of earnings management have been expanded to investigate earnings management in different situations. For example, research has examined earnings management around specific events (e.g., management buyouts, DeAngelo, 1986; labor negotiation, Liberty & Zimmerman, 1986; proxy contests, DeAngelo, 1988; import relief investigation, Jones, 1991; non-routine executive changes, Pourciau, 1993; and initial public offerings, Teoh, Wong, & Rao, 1998). Still other studies have investigated the linkage between corporate governance characteristics and earnings management (e.g., impact of institutional ownership on R & D behavior, Bushee, 1998; impact of independent directors and CEO stockholdings on earnings management, Reitenga & Tearney, 2003; impact of the then Big 6 auditors on discretionary accruals, Becker, et al, 1998; Francis, Maydew, & Sparks, 1999; impact of Big
6 auditor industry expertise on earnings management, Krishnan, 2003; association between auditors’ fees for audit and nonaudit services and earnings management, Frankel, Johnson, & Nelson, 2002; impact of outside directors and audit committee on abnormal accruals, Peasnell, Pope, & Young, 2005; association between board of director characteristics and conservatism, Ahmed & Duellman, 2007). Also, some studies have examined the rationale of accounting conservatism (Watts, 2003a, 2003b).

On the other hand, the capital market-based accounting research has expanded to investigate the value relevance of accounting numbers. This branch of capital market-based accounting research is motivated by standard-setting considerations (Barth, Beaver, & Landsman, 2001). For example, capital market-based studies have examined whether fair value is value-relevant in different settings (American Accounting Association Financial Accounting Standards Committee, 2005; Barth, Beaver, & Landsman,
1996, 2001; Barth & Clinch, 1998; Landsman, 2007; Eccher, Ramesh, & Thiagarajan, 1996). More recently, empirical research has examined the value relevance of accounting numbers reported under different sets of Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (e.g., German GAAP, International Financial Reporting Standards, and US GAAP; Clarkson et al, 2009; Hung & Subramanyam, 2007; Morais & Curto, 2009).

PAT and Accounting Practice

PAT has enhanced the understanding of various accounting phenomena and issues. For example, it has yielded important insights into the linkage between accounting numbers and stock returns and management’s financial reporting incentives. Despite this, its contribution to accounting practice has been very limited. Accounting practice has evolved over hundreds of years through the interplay of a myriad of factors (Edwards, 1989) and the process of change in accounting practice has been slow.

Findings of positive accounting research, however, have informed debates on important accounting issues. For example, positive accounting research has helped shape the recent fair value debate (Barth et al., 2001; Holthausen & Watts, 2001). The fair value debate centers on whether fair value should be mandated as a measurement attribute in financial statements. The debate on market value is actually very old (Chambers, 1966; Ijiri, 1975; Littleton, 1953; MacNeal, 1939; Paton & Littleton,
1940). Empirical evidence, however, now exists on the pros and cons of fair value measurement. For example, the value relevance literature has documented that fair value of assets is value relevant in some settings (American Accounting Association Financial Accounting Standards Committee, 2005; Landsman, 2007). On the other hand, such accounting sources argued that fair value is a soft measure

140

Positive Accounting Theory and Science


especially when it is measured by reference to models and it is easy to manipulate fair value estimates. The PAT literature documents that management manages reported earnings to serve its purpose (Watts
& Zimmerman, 1986). More recently, studies document that management manipulates fair value estimates. For example, Benston (2006) provided evidence on fairly extensive use of fair value by Enron and argued that misuse of fair value by management contributed to its demise. Byrne, Clacher, Hillier, & Hodgson (2008) have reported substantial variations in assumptions – discount rate, wage growth, expected return on equity, discount rate spread and equity return spread – used in fair value accounting for pensions in the UK. They have further suggested that the variations in assumptions are related not to economic fundamentals but to management’s motives to inflate income from pension scheme assets. Similarly, the PAT literature has informed the intangible assets debate, which centers on whether internally generated intangibles should be recognized in financial statements. The value relevance literature has suggested that disclosure of intangibles in financial statements is value relevant. These findings have served as the basis for the proposal that the current accounting for intangibles be changed (see, for example, Lev & Zarowin, 1999; Lev, 2001).
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The above sets of studies have used the Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH) and the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) as their underlying foundation. Furthermore, it was assumed that contracting costs5 were zero. Overall, these studies raised doubts about the empirical descriptiveness of the following assumptions underlying normative prescriptions during the 1960s: (a) There is only one source of information about a company, (b) earnings numbers are useless because they were not prepared according to a single basis, and (c) it is possible to mislead the stock market by manipulating the earnings number through accounting choices. Information content studies reveal that these assumptions are unlikely to be descriptive of the real world. The EMH implies that there is competition for information. There are alternative sources of information about the firm such as information releases by management and interviews of corporate personnel by analysts. The observed association between unexpected earnings and abnormal rate of return reveals that the earnings number reflects factors relevant to the valuation of stock despite not being calculated on a single basis. Furthermore, the believers in EMH and CAPM argued that it is not possible to systematically mislead the market by accounting changes. The market differentiates between accounting changes having cash flow effects and changes with no cash flow effects. Thus, the mechanistic hypothesis was unlikely to be descriptive of the real world.
As noted above, early studies could not successfully discriminate between the no-effects hypothesis and the mechanistic hypothesis. This did not lead to the rejection of the no-effects hypothesis. Instead the results led the researchers to examine the methodological aspects of those studies and question the empirical validity of one important assumption (i.e., zero contracting costs) underlying the tests. This has led to a breakthrough in accounting research. It has long been held in economics that contracting costs are non-zero (Coase, 1937). Accounting researchers have abandoned the assumption of zero transaction and information costs.

This breakthrough opened the door to possibilities for explanation and prediction of variation of accounting practice across firms. The major idea behind this literature is that the firm is a nexus of contracts, and accounting methods constitute an integral part of this set of contracts (Sunder, 1997). Accounting numbers are used to write, monitor, and enforce contracts (Sunder, 1997). Viewed in this way, accounting can affect firm value via their impact on contracts. Accounting is no longer mere form as was assumed under the EMH and CAPM regime6. The dropping of the assumption of zero contracting costs has shown that accounting methods have the potential to affect the cash flow to the contracting parties. It thus provides incentives to the contracting parties to influence accounting methods.

Positive Accounting Theory and Science

139


Though the above idea is general, early empirical studies of accounting choices investigated the impact of variables related to earnings-based bonus plans, debt, and the political process affecting the firm. Three major hypotheses tested are as follows: (a) the bonus plan hypothesis, (b) the debt-equity hypothesis, and (c) political cost hypothesis (Watts & Zimmerman, 1986). The bonus plan hypothesis states that firms with bonus plans choose accounting methods so as to increase current period earnings. The debt-equity hypothesis says that firms with higher debt-equity ratios choose accounting procedures so as to shift earnings from future periods to the current period. The political cost hypothesis says that large firms rather than small firms choose accounting methods so as to shift earnings from the current period to future periods. Size has been used as the proxy variable for political attention in early studies (e.g., Watts & Zimmerman, 1986). Underlying all these hypotheses is the assumption of non-zero contracting costs (Watts & Zimmerman, 1986). Empirical evidence is generally consistent with these hypotheses (Watts & Zimmerman, 1986, chapter 11; Christie, 1990). Another stream of research examines the stock price effects of accounting changes – both mandated and voluntary (Watts
& Zimmerman, 1986, chapter 12).

The initial studies of earnings management have been expanded to investigate earnings management in different situations. For example, research has examined earnings management around specific events (e.g., management buyouts, DeAngelo, 1986; labor negotiation, Liberty & Zimmerman, 1986; proxy contests, DeAngelo, 1988; import relief investigation, Jones, 1991; non-routine executive changes, Pourciau, 1993; and initial public offerings, Teoh, Wong, & Rao, 1998). Still other studies have investigated the linkage between corporate governance characteristics and earnings management (e.g., impact of institutional ownership on R & D behavior, Bushee, 1998; impact of independent directors and CEO stockholdings on earnings management, Reitenga & Tearney, 2003; impact of the then Big 6 auditors on discretionary accruals, Becker, et al, 1998; Francis, Maydew, & Sparks, 1999; impact of Big
6 auditor industry expertise on earnings management, Krishnan, 2003; association between auditors’ fees for audit and nonaudit services and earnings management, Frankel, Johnson, & Nelson, 2002; impact of outside directors and audit committee on abnormal accruals, Peasnell, Pope, & Young, 2005; association between board of director characteristics and conservatism, Ahmed & Duellman, 2007). Also, some studies have examined the rationale of accounting conservatism (Watts, 2003a, 2003b).

On the other hand, the capital market-based accounting research has expanded to investigate the value relevance of accounting numbers. This branch of capital market-based accounting research is motivated by standard-setting considerations (Barth, Beaver, & Landsman, 2001). For example, capital market-based studies have examined whether fair value is value-relevant in different settings (American Accounting Association Financial Accounting Standards Committee, 2005; Barth, Beaver, & Landsman,
1996, 2001; Barth & Clinch, 1998; Landsman, 2007; Eccher, Ramesh, & Thiagarajan, 1996). More recently, empirical research has examined the value relevance of accounting numbers reported under different sets of Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (e.g., German GAAP, International Financial Reporting Standards, and US GAAP; Clarkson et al, 2009; Hung & Subramanyam, 2007; Morais & Curto, 2009).

PAT and Accounting Practice

PAT has enhanced the understanding of various accounting phenomena and issues. For example, it has yielded important insights into the linkage between accounting numbers and stock returns and management’s financial reporting incentives. Despite this, its contribution to accounting practice has been very limited. Accounting practice has evolved over hundreds of years through the interplay of a myriad of factors (Edwards, 1989) and the process of change in accounting practice has been slow.

Findings of positive accounting research, however, have informed debates on important accounting issues. For example, positive accounting research has helped shape the recent fair value debate (Barth et al., 2001; Holthausen & Watts, 2001). The fair value debate centers on whether fair value should be mandated as a measurement attribute in financial statements. The debate on market value is actually very old (Chambers, 1966; Ijiri, 1975; Littleton, 1953; MacNeal, 1939; Paton & Littleton,
1940). Empirical evidence, however, now exists on the pros and cons of fair value measurement. For example, the value relevance literature has documented that fair value of assets is value relevant in some settings (American Accounting Association Financial Accounting Standards Committee, 2005; Landsman, 2007). On the other hand, such accounting sources argued that fair value is a soft measure

140

Positive Accounting Theory and Science


especially when it is measured by reference to models and it is easy to manipulate fair value estimates. The PAT literature documents that management manages reported earnings to serve its purpose (Watts
& Zimmerman, 1986). More recently, studies document that management manipulates fair value estimates. For example, Benston (2006) provided evidence on fairly extensive use of fair value by Enron and argued that misuse of fair value by management contributed to its demise. Byrne, Clacher, Hillier, & Hodgson (2008) have reported substantial variations in assumptions – discount rate, wage growth, expected return on equity, discount rate spread and equity return spread – used in fair value accounting for pensions in the UK. They have further suggested that the variations in assumptions are related not to economic fundamentals but to management’s motives to inflate income from pension scheme assets. Similarly, the PAT literature has informed the intangible assets debate, which centers on whether internally generated intangibles should be recognized in financial statements. The value relevance literature has suggested that disclosure of intangibles in financial statements is value relevant. These findings have served as the basis for the proposal that the current accounting for intangibles be changed (see, for example, Lev & Zarowin, 1999; Lev, 2001).
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Set atas studi telah menggunakan Efisien Pasar Hipotesis (EMH) dan Pricing Model Capital Asset (CAPM) sebagai dasar yang mendasari mereka. Selanjutnya, diasumsikan bahwa costs5 kontraktor yang nol. Secara keseluruhan, studi ini menimbulkan keraguan tentang descriptiveness empiris dari asumsi berikut mendasari resep normatif selama tahun 1960: (a) Hanya ada satu sumber informasi tentang sebuah perusahaan, (b) angka laba tidak berguna karena mereka tidak siap menurut dasar tunggal, dan (c) adalah mungkin untuk menyesatkan pasar saham dengan memanipulasi jumlah laba melalui pilihan akuntansi. Studi konten informasi mengungkapkan bahwa asumsi ini tidak mungkin deskriptif dunia nyata. EMH menyiratkan bahwa ada persaingan untuk informasi. Ada alternatif sumber informasi tentang perusahaan seperti informasi rilis oleh manajemen dan wawancara personil perusahaan dengan analis. Asosiasi diamati antara laba tak terduga dan tingkat normal pengembalian mengungkapkan bahwa jumlah laba mencerminkan faktor yang relevan untuk penilaian saham meskipun tidak dihitung secara tunggal. Selanjutnya, orang-orang percaya di EMH dan CAPM berpendapat bahwa tidak mungkin untuk secara sistematis menyesatkan pasar dengan perubahan akuntansi. Pasar membedakan antara perubahan akuntansi memiliki efek arus kas dan perubahan tanpa efek arus kas. Dengan demikian, hipotesis mekanistik adalah tidak mungkin deskriptif dunia nyata. Seperti disebutkan di atas, studi awal tidak bisa berhasil membedakan antara ada efek hipotesis dan hipotesis mekanistik. Ini tidak menyebabkan penolakan tanpa efek hipotesis. Sebaliknya hasil memimpin peneliti untuk meneliti aspek metodologis studi mereka dan mempertanyakan validitas empiris dari satu asumsi penting (yaitu, nol biaya kontrak) yang mendasari tes. Ini telah menyebabkan terobosan dalam penelitian akuntansi. Telah lama diselenggarakan di bidang ekonomi bahwa biaya kontrak yang non-nol (Coase, 1937). Peneliti akuntansi telah meninggalkan asumsi nol transaksi dan informasi biaya. Terobosan ini membuka pintu untuk kemungkinan penjelasan dan prediksi variasi praktik akuntansi di seluruh perusahaan. Ide utama di balik literatur ini adalah bahwa perusahaan adalah perhubungan kontrak, dan metode akuntansi merupakan bagian integral dari set ini kontrak (Sunder, 1997). Angka akuntansi yang digunakan untuk menulis, memantau, dan menegakkan kontrak (Sunder, 1997). Dilihat dengan cara ini, akuntansi dapat mempengaruhi nilai perusahaan melalui dampaknya terhadap kontrak. Akuntansi tidak lagi hanya berupa seperti yang diasumsikan di bawah EMH dan CAPM regime6. Menjatuhkan asumsi nol biaya kontrak telah menunjukkan bahwa metode akuntansi memiliki potensi untuk mempengaruhi arus kas kepada pihak kontraktor. Dengan demikian memberikan insentif kepada pihak kontraktor untuk mempengaruhi metode akuntansi. Teori Akuntansi Positif dan Ilmu 139 Meskipun ide di atas adalah umum, studi awal empiris pilihan akuntansi menyelidiki dampak variabel yang berhubungan dengan pendapatan berbasis rencana bonus, utang, dan politik memproses mempengaruhi perusahaan. Tiga hipotesis utama yang diuji adalah sebagai berikut: (a) hipotesis rencana bonus, (b) hipotesis utang-ekuitas, dan (c) biaya politik hipotesis (Watts & Zimmerman, 1986). Rencana bonus hipotesis menyatakan bahwa perusahaan dengan rencana bonus memilih metode akuntansi sehingga dapat meningkatkan laba periode berjalan. Hipotesis utang-ekuitas mengatakan bahwa perusahaan dengan rasio utang-ekuitas yang lebih tinggi memilih prosedur akuntansi yang menggeser laba dari periode mendatang ke periode berjalan. Biaya hipotesis politik mengatakan bahwa perusahaan-perusahaan besar daripada perusahaan kecil memilih metode akuntansi yang menggeser laba dari periode saat ini untuk periode mendatang. Ukuran telah digunakan sebagai variabel proxy untuk perhatian politik dalam studi awal (misalnya, Watts & Zimmerman, 1986). Mendasari semua hipotesis ini adalah asumsi biaya kontrak non-nol (Watts & Zimmerman, 1986). Bukti empiris umumnya konsisten dengan hipotesis ini (Watts & Zimmerman, 1986, pasal 11; Christie, 1990). Lain aliran penelitian meneliti efek harga saham perubahan akuntansi - baik diamanatkan dan sukarela (Watts. & Zimmerman, 1986, Bab 12) Penelitian awal manajemen laba telah diperluas untuk menyelidiki manajemen laba dalam situasi yang berbeda. Sebagai contoh, penelitian telah meneliti manajemen laba di sekitar peristiwa tertentu (misalnya, buyout manajemen, DeAngelo, 1986; negosiasi tenaga kerja, Liberty & Zimmerman, 1986; kontes proxy, DeAngelo, 1988; penyelidikan bantuan impor, Jones, 1991; perubahan eksekutif non-rutin , Pourciau, 1993, dan penawaran umum perdana, Teoh, Wong, & Rao, 1998). Masih penelitian lain telah meneliti hubungan antara karakteristik corporate governance dan manajemen laba (misalnya, dampak kepemilikan institusional pada R & perilaku D, Bushee, 1998; dampak direktur independen dan kepemilikannya CEO pada manajemen laba, Reitenga & Tearney, 2003; dampak kemudian Big 6 auditor pada akrual diskresioner, Becker, et al, 1998; Francis, Maydew, & Sparks, 1999; dampak Big 6 auditor keahlian industri pada manajemen laba, Krishnan, 2003; hubungan antara biaya auditor untuk jasa audit dan nonaudit dan manajemen laba, Frankel, Johnson, & Nelson, 2002; dampak direksi luar dan komite audit pada akrual yang abnormal, Peasnell, Paus, & Young, 2005; hubungan antara dewan direktur karakteristik dan konservatisme, Ahmed & Duellman, 2007). Juga, beberapa studi telah meneliti pemikiran konservatisme akuntansi (Watts, 2003a, 2003b). Di sisi lain, penelitian akuntansi berbasis pasar modal telah diperluas untuk menyelidiki relevansi nilai angka akuntansi. Ini cabang dari penelitian akuntansi berbasis pasar modal dimotivasi oleh penetapan standar pertimbangan (Barth, Beaver, & Landsman, 2001). Sebagai contoh, studi berbasis pasar modal telah memeriksa apakah nilai wajar adalah nilai-relevan dalam pengaturan yang berbeda (Amerika Akuntansi Association Keuangan Komite Standar Akuntansi, 2005; Barth, Beaver, & Landsman, 1996, 2001; Barth & Clinch, 1998; Landsman, 2007; Eccher, Ramesh, & Thiagarajan, 1996). Baru-baru ini, penelitian empiris telah meneliti relevansi nilai angka akuntansi yang dilaporkan di bawah set yang berbeda dari Prinsip Standar Akuntansi Keuangan (misalnya, GAAP Jerman, Internasional Standar Pelaporan Keuangan, dan US GAAP; Clarkson et al, 2009; Hung & Subramanyam, 2007; Morais & Curto, 2009). PAT dan Praktek Akuntansi PAT telah meningkatkan pemahaman tentang berbagai fenomena akuntansi dan isu-isu. Sebagai contoh, telah menghasilkan wawasan penting dalam hubungan antara angka akuntansi dan return saham dan insentif pelaporan keuangan manajemen. Meskipun demikian, kontribusinya terhadap praktik akuntansi telah sangat terbatas. Praktik akuntansi telah berkembang selama ratusan tahun melalui interaksi dari berbagai faktor (Edwards, 1989) dan proses perubahan dalam praktek akuntansi telah lambat. Temuan penelitian akuntansi positif, perdebatan bagaimanapun, telah diberitahu tentang isu-isu akuntansi yang penting. Sebagai contoh, penelitian akuntansi positif telah membantu membentuk perdebatan nilai wajar baru-baru ini (Barth et al, 2001;. Holthausen & Watts, 2001). Adil pusat perdebatan tentang apakah nilai nilai wajar harus dimandatkan sebagai atribut pengukuran dalam laporan keuangan. Perdebatan tentang nilai pasar sebenarnya sangat tua (Chambers, 1966; Ijiri, 1975; Littleton, 1953; MacNeal, 1939; Paton & Littleton, 1940). Bukti empiris, namun, sekarang ada di pro dan kontra dari pengukuran nilai wajar. Sebagai contoh, nilai relevansi literatur telah mendokumentasikan bahwa nilai wajar aset adalah nilai yang relevan di beberapa pengaturan (Amerika Akuntansi Keuangan Ikatan Komite Standar Akuntansi, 2005; Landsman, 2007). Di sisi lain, sumber akuntansi seperti dikatakan bahwa nilai wajar adalah ukuran lembut 140 Teori Akuntansi Positif dan Ilmu terutama ketika diukur dengan mengacu pada model dan mudah untuk memanipulasi perkiraan nilai wajar. Dokumen-dokumen sastra PAT bahwa manajemen mengelola laba yang dilaporkan untuk melayani tujuan (Watts & Zimmerman, 1986). Baru-baru ini, penelitian mendokumentasikan bahwa manajemen memanipulasi perkiraan nilai wajar. Misalnya, Benston (2006) memberikan bukti pada penggunaan yang cukup luas dari nilai wajar oleh Enron dan berpendapat bahwa penyalahgunaan nilai wajar oleh manajemen berkontribusi kehancurannya. Byrne, Clacher, Hillier, & Hodgson (2008) telah melaporkan variasi substansial dalam asumsi - tingkat diskonto, pertumbuhan upah, diharapkan return on equity, tingkat penyebaran diskon dan kembali ekuitas penyebaran - digunakan dalam akuntansi nilai wajar untuk pensiun di Inggris. Mereka telah lebih jauh menyarankan bahwa variasi dalam asumsi terkait tidak fundamental ekonomi tetapi untuk motif manajemen untuk mengembang pendapatan dari aset skema pensiun. Demikian pula, literatur PAT telah menginformasikan perdebatan aset tidak berwujud, yang berpusat pada apakah berwujud yang dihasilkan secara internal harus diakui dalam laporan keuangan. Literatur relevansi nilai telah menyarankan bahwa pengungkapan berwujud dalam laporan keuangan adalah nilai yang relevan. Temuan ini telah menjabat sebagai dasar untuk proposal bahwa akuntansi saat ini berwujud diubah (lihat, misalnya, Lev & Zarowin, 1999; Lev, 2001).

































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