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Many drug substances can exist in m

Many drug substances can exist in more than one crystalline form with different space lattice arrangements. This property is known as polymorphism. The different crystal forms are called polymorphs. Occasionally, a solid
crystallizes, entrapping solvent molecules in a specific lattice position and in a fixed stoichiometry, resulting in a solvate or pseudopolymorph. Many solids may be prepared in a particular polymorphic form via appropriate
manipulation of conditions of crystallization. These conditions include nature of the solvent, temperature, rate of cooling, and other factors. Many times a solute precipitates out of solution so that the molecules in the resulting solid are not ordered in a regular array but in a more or less random arrangement. This state is known as the amorphous form. Usually shock cooling, a sudden change in the composition of the solvent of crystallization, or lyophilization results in an amorphous form.

Different polymorphic forms of a given solid differ from each other with respect to many physical properties, such as solubility and dissolution, true density, crystal shape, compaction behavior, flow properties, and solid­
state stability. It is essential. therefore, to define and monitor the solid state of a drug substance. Occasionally, it may be deemed necessary to actively search for a different polymorphic form to circumvent a stability,
bioavailabilfty , or processing problem. The subject of polymorphism has(10) attracted considerable attention from preformulation scientists, and excellent reviews have appeared in the pharmaceutical literature [62- 66]

A. Crystal Characteristics and Bioavailability
Differences in the dissolution rates and solubilities of different polymorphic forms of a given drug are well documented in the pharmaceutical literature [67,68]. When the absorption of a drug is dissolution rate-limited, a more soluble and faster dissolving form may be utilized to improve the rate and extent of bioavailability. The work of Aguiar and others [69,70] on polymorphs of chloramphenicol palmitate and that of Miyazaki et al . [71] on chlortetracycline hydrochloride illustrate this point.

B. Crystal Characteristics and Chemical Stability

For drugs prone to degradation in the solid state, the physical form of the drug influences the rate of degradation. For example. aztreonam, a monobactam antibiotic. exists in needlelike u- and dense spherical s-crystalline forms. In the presence of high humidity (37°C/75% RH), the a form undergoes B-Iactam hydrolysis more readily with a half-life of about 6 months whereas the B form under identical conditions is stable for several years [72]. Inasmuch as two crystal forms of a labile drug could exhibitwidely different solid-state stabilities, a preformuation scientist might consider changing the crystal form to alleviate and possibly eliminate a stability problem. This approach is demonstrated by the data presented in Figur 15 for an experimental drug. Under stress conditions, the anhydrous crystalline form of this experimental drug degraded rapidly with a half-life of about 18 weeks. A solvate form of the drug under the same conditions was essentially stable. Desolvation of the solvate caused by excessive heat resulted in a new crystal form distinct from the anhydrous and sol­
vate forms. The desolvated form under the test conditions degraded most rapidly. This case history illustrates not only the possible use of a polymorphic form to solve a stability problem but also the importance of con­
trolling processing variables so that the integrity of the selected form is maintained.

C. Crystal Characteristics and Tableting Behavior
In a typical tableting operation, flow and compaction behaviors of the powder mass to be tableted are important considerations. These properties,among others, are related to the morphol ogy, tensile strength, and density
of the powder bed. As mentioned earlier, two polymorphic forms of the same drug could differ significantly with respect to these properties. The morphology of a crystal also depends on crystal habit. The latter is a
description of the outer appearance of a crystal. When the environment in which crystals grow changes the external shape of the crystals without altering their internal structure j then a different habit results. Crystal
habit is influenced by the presence of an impurity, concentration, rate of crystallization, and hydrodynamics in the crystallizer. cole et al , [73] describe compaction processes as "packing of particles by diffusion into void spaces, elastic and plastic deformation, fracture and cold working and. finally. compression of the solid material." One or more of these subprocesses may be affected by crystal form and habit. Some investigation of polymorphism and crystal habit of a drug substance as it relates to pharmaceutical processing is desirable during its preformulation evaluation. especially when the active ingredient is expected to constitute the bulk of the tablet mass. Shell [74] studied the crystal habit and the tableting behavior of nine different lots of an experimental drug. Using single-crystal X-ray data and X-ray powder diffraction patterns, he found
that the ratio of intensities at diffraction angles of 12. 09 and 8. 72° correlated well with the tableting behavior of the nine lots as [udged by an experienced operator. Summers et al . [75] showed that different polymorphs
of sulfathiazole, barbitone. and asprin differed significantly in their compression characteristics. Likewise, 1m aizumi and coworkers {76] observed that the crystalline form of indomethacin yielded tablets with better hardness characteristics than the amorphous form.

D. Crystal Characteristics and Physical Stability
Although a drug substance may exist in two or more polymorphic forms, only one form is thermodynamically stable at a given temperature and pressure. The other forms would convert to the stable form with time. This
transformation may be rapid or slow. When the transformation is not rapid, the thermodynamically unstable form is referred to as a metastable form. In general, the stable polymorph exhibits the highest melting point, the
lowest solubility, and the maximum chemical stability. A metastable form nevertheless may exhibit sufficient chemical and physical stability undershelf conditions to justify its use for reasons of better dissolution or ease
of tableting. When use of a metastable form is recommended, for whatever reason, a preformulation scientist must assure its integrity under a variety of processing conditions so that appropriate handling conditions may be defined.
Polymorphic transformations can occur during grinding, granulating, drying, and compressing operations. Digoxin, spironolactone, and estradiol are reported to undergo polymorphic transformations during the comminution process [77]. Phenylbutazone undergoes polymorphic transformation as a result of grinding and compression r78]. Granulation, since it entails the use of a solvent, can lead to a solvate formation. On the other hand, if the molecule is initially a solvate, the drying step in the process may cause transformation to an anhydrous crystalline or amorphous form {79]. Good knowledge of polymorphism and polymorphic stability is also needed to predict long-term physical stability of dosage forms. Yamaoka et al , [80] observed cappinglike cracking in tablets of anydrous crystalline carbochromen hydrochloride upon storage under high-humidity conditions. This was determined to be due to transformation of the anhydrous form into a dihydrate.

Even when the stable form is the form of choice, it is advisable to monitor the crystal form of each lot of raw material. In the case of calcium pantothenate, the preferred form is the crystalline form. In the preparation of multivitamin tablets, calcium pantothenate is granulated with a few other vitamins and appropriate excipients. An amorphous form of calcium pantothenate is known which readily reverts to the stable form when wetted
with a variety of solvents used as granulating solvents. Use of the amorphous form in multivitamin tablets prepared by a granulation process is, however, not desirable because the polymorphic transformation renders
the granulating mass sticky, making further granulation virtually impossible.

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Many drug substances can exist in more than one crystalline form with different space lattice arrangements. This property is known as polymorphism. The different crystal forms are called polymorphs. Occasionally, a solidcrystallizes, entrapping solvent molecules in a specific lattice position and in a fixed stoichiometry, resulting in a solvate or pseudopolymorph. Many solids may be prepared in a particular polymorphic form via appropriatemanipulation of conditions of crystallization. These conditions include nature of the solvent, temperature, rate of cooling, and other factors. Many times a solute precipitates out of solution so that the molecules in the resulting solid are not ordered in a regular array but in a more or less random arrangement. This state is known as the amorphous form. Usually shock cooling, a sudden change in the composition of the solvent of crystallization, or lyophilization results in an amorphous form.Different polymorphic forms of a given solid differ from each other with respect to many physical properties, such as solubility and dissolution, true density, crystal shape, compaction behavior, flow properties, and solid­state stability. It is essential. therefore, to define and monitor the solid state of a drug substance. Occasionally, it may be deemed necessary to actively search for a different polymorphic form to circumvent a stability,bioavailabilfty , or processing problem. The subject of polymorphism has(10) attracted considerable attention from preformulation scientists, and excellent reviews have appeared in the pharmaceutical literature [62- 66]
A. Crystal Characteristics and Bioavailability
Differences in the dissolution rates and solubilities of different polymorphic forms of a given drug are well documented in the pharmaceutical literature [67,68]. When the absorption of a drug is dissolution rate-limited, a more soluble and faster dissolving form may be utilized to improve the rate and extent of bioavailability. The work of Aguiar and others [69,70] on polymorphs of chloramphenicol palmitate and that of Miyazaki et al . [71] on chlortetracycline hydrochloride illustrate this point.

B. Crystal Characteristics and Chemical Stability

For drugs prone to degradation in the solid state, the physical form of the drug influences the rate of degradation. For example. aztreonam, a monobactam antibiotic. exists in needlelike u- and dense spherical s-crystalline forms. In the presence of high humidity (37°C/75% RH), the a form undergoes B-Iactam hydrolysis more readily with a half-life of about 6 months whereas the B form under identical conditions is stable for several years [72]. Inasmuch as two crystal forms of a labile drug could exhibitwidely different solid-state stabilities, a preformuation scientist might consider changing the crystal form to alleviate and possibly eliminate a stability problem. This approach is demonstrated by the data presented in Figur 15 for an experimental drug. Under stress conditions, the anhydrous crystalline form of this experimental drug degraded rapidly with a half-life of about 18 weeks. A solvate form of the drug under the same conditions was essentially stable. Desolvation of the solvate caused by excessive heat resulted in a new crystal form distinct from the anhydrous and sol­
vate forms. The desolvated form under the test conditions degraded most rapidly. This case history illustrates not only the possible use of a polymorphic form to solve a stability problem but also the importance of con­
trolling processing variables so that the integrity of the selected form is maintained.

C. Crystal Characteristics and Tableting Behavior
In a typical tableting operation, flow and compaction behaviors of the powder mass to be tableted are important considerations. These properties,among others, are related to the morphol ogy, tensile strength, and density
of the powder bed. As mentioned earlier, two polymorphic forms of the same drug could differ significantly with respect to these properties. The morphology of a crystal also depends on crystal habit. The latter is a
description of the outer appearance of a crystal. When the environment in which crystals grow changes the external shape of the crystals without altering their internal structure j then a different habit results. Crystal
habit is influenced by the presence of an impurity, concentration, rate of crystallization, and hydrodynamics in the crystallizer. cole et al , [73] describe compaction processes as "packing of particles by diffusion into void spaces, elastic and plastic deformation, fracture and cold working and. finally. compression of the solid material." One or more of these subprocesses may be affected by crystal form and habit. Some investigation of polymorphism and crystal habit of a drug substance as it relates to pharmaceutical processing is desirable during its preformulation evaluation. especially when the active ingredient is expected to constitute the bulk of the tablet mass. Shell [74] studied the crystal habit and the tableting behavior of nine different lots of an experimental drug. Using single-crystal X-ray data and X-ray powder diffraction patterns, he found
that the ratio of intensities at diffraction angles of 12. 09 and 8. 72° correlated well with the tableting behavior of the nine lots as [udged by an experienced operator. Summers et al . [75] showed that different polymorphs
of sulfathiazole, barbitone. and asprin differed significantly in their compression characteristics. Likewise, 1m aizumi and coworkers {76] observed that the crystalline form of indomethacin yielded tablets with better hardness characteristics than the amorphous form.

D. Crystal Characteristics and Physical Stability
Although a drug substance may exist in two or more polymorphic forms, only one form is thermodynamically stable at a given temperature and pressure. The other forms would convert to the stable form with time. This
transformation may be rapid or slow. When the transformation is not rapid, the thermodynamically unstable form is referred to as a metastable form. In general, the stable polymorph exhibits the highest melting point, the
lowest solubility, and the maximum chemical stability. A metastable form nevertheless may exhibit sufficient chemical and physical stability undershelf conditions to justify its use for reasons of better dissolution or ease
of tableting. When use of a metastable form is recommended, for whatever reason, a preformulation scientist must assure its integrity under a variety of processing conditions so that appropriate handling conditions may be defined.
Polymorphic transformations can occur during grinding, granulating, drying, and compressing operations. Digoxin, spironolactone, and estradiol are reported to undergo polymorphic transformations during the comminution process [77]. Phenylbutazone undergoes polymorphic transformation as a result of grinding and compression r78]. Granulation, since it entails the use of a solvent, can lead to a solvate formation. On the other hand, if the molecule is initially a solvate, the drying step in the process may cause transformation to an anhydrous crystalline or amorphous form {79]. Good knowledge of polymorphism and polymorphic stability is also needed to predict long-term physical stability of dosage forms. Yamaoka et al , [80] observed cappinglike cracking in tablets of anydrous crystalline carbochromen hydrochloride upon storage under high-humidity conditions. This was determined to be due to transformation of the anhydrous form into a dihydrate.

Even when the stable form is the form of choice, it is advisable to monitor the crystal form of each lot of raw material. In the case of calcium pantothenate, the preferred form is the crystalline form. In the preparation of multivitamin tablets, calcium pantothenate is granulated with a few other vitamins and appropriate excipients. An amorphous form of calcium pantothenate is known which readily reverts to the stable form when wetted
with a variety of solvents used as granulating solvents. Use of the amorphous form in multivitamin tablets prepared by a granulation process is, however, not desirable because the polymorphic transformation renders
the granulating mass sticky, making further granulation virtually impossible.

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Banyak zat narkoba bisa eksis dalam lebih dari satu bentuk kristal dengan pengaturan ruang kisi yang berbeda. Properti ini dikenal sebagai polimorfisme. Bentuk-bentuk kristal yang berbeda yang disebut polimorf. Kadang-kadang, padat
mengkristal, penjebakan molekul pelarut dalam posisi kisi tertentu dan dalam stoikiometri tetap, sehingga solvat atau pseudopolymorph. Banyak padatan dapat dibuat dalam bentuk polimorfik tertentu melalui sesuai
manipulasi kondisi kristalisasi. Kondisi ini termasuk sifat pelarut, suhu, laju pendinginan, dan faktor lainnya. Banyak kali zat terlarut presipitat keluar dari solusi sehingga molekul dalam menghasilkan padat tidak diperintahkan dalam array biasa tetapi dalam kurang lebih acak pengaturan. Negara ini dikenal sebagai bentuk amorf. Biasanya mengejutkan pendinginan, perubahan mendadak dalam komposisi pelarut kristalisasi, atau hasil liofilisasi dalam bentuk amorf. bentuk polimorfik yang berbeda dari yang diberikan padat berbeda satu sama lain sehubungan dengan banyak sifat fisik, seperti kelarutan dan pembubaran, kepadatan benar , bentuk kristal, perilaku pemadatan, sifat aliran, dan solid state stabilitas. Hal ini penting. Oleh karena itu, untuk menentukan dan memantau keadaan padat dari zat obat. Kadang-kadang, hal itu dianggap perlu untuk secara aktif mencari bentuk polimorfik yang berbeda untuk menghindari stabilitas, bioavailabilfty, atau masalah pemrosesan. Subyek polimorfisme memiliki (10) menarik perhatian dari para ilmuwan preformulation, dan ulasan yang sangat baik telah muncul dalam literatur farmasi [62- 66] A. Karakteristik kristal dan Bioavailabilitas Perbedaan tingkat pembubaran dan kelarutan bentuk polimorfik yang berbeda dari obat yang diberikan didokumentasikan dalam literatur farmasi [67,68]. Ketika penyerapan obat adalah laju disolusi terbatas, bentuk yang lebih mudah larut dan cepat melarutkan dapat digunakan untuk meningkatkan tingkat dan tingkat bioavailabilitas. Karya Aguiar dan lain-lain [69,70] pada polimorf kloramfenikol palmitat dan dari Miyazaki et al. [71] pada chlortetracycline hidroklorida menggambarkan hal ini. B. Karakteristik kristal dan Kimia Stabilitas Untuk obat rentan terhadap degradasi dalam keadaan padat, bentuk fisik obat mempengaruhi laju degradasi. Sebagai contoh. aztreonam, antibiotik Monobaktam. ada di u- jarum dan bola bentuk s-kristal padat. Di hadapan kelembaban tinggi (37 ° C / 75% RH), bentuk yang mengalami B-Iactam hidrolisis lebih mudah dengan waktu paruh sekitar 6 bulan sedangkan bentuk B di bawah kondisi yang sama stabil selama beberapa tahun [72] . Sejauh dua bentuk kristal obat labil bisa kestabilan solid-state exhibitwidely berbeda, seorang ilmuwan preformuation mungkin mempertimbangkan mengubah bentuk kristal untuk meringankan dan mungkin menghilangkan masalah stabilitas. Pendekatan ini ditunjukkan oleh data yang disajikan dalam Figur 15 untuk obat percobaan. Dalam kondisi stres, bentuk kristal anhidrat obat eksperimental ini terdegradasi dengan cepat dengan waktu paruh sekitar 18 minggu. Bentuk melarutkan obat dalam kondisi yang sama pada dasarnya stabil. Desolvation dari solvat yang disebabkan oleh panas yang berlebihan menghasilkan bentuk kristal baru yang berbeda dari anhidrat dan sol bentuk vate. Bentuk desolvated di bawah kondisi pengujian terdegradasi paling cepat. Sejarah kasus ini menggambarkan tidak hanya kemungkinan penggunaan bentuk polimorfik untuk memecahkan masalah stabilitas, tetapi juga pentingnya con variabel pengolahan trolling sehingga integritas bentuk yang dipilih dipertahankan. C. Karakteristik kristal dan tablet Perilaku Dalam operasi tablet khas, aliran dan perilaku pemadatan massa bubuk menjadi tableted pertimbangan penting. Properti ini, antara lain, terkait dengan ogy morphol, kekuatan tarik, dan densitas dari tempat tidur bubuk. Seperti disebutkan sebelumnya, dua bentuk polimorfik dari obat yang sama dapat berbeda secara signifikan sehubungan dengan sifat ini. Morfologi kristal juga tergantung pada kebiasaan kristal. Yang terakhir adalah deskripsi penampilan luar kristal. Ketika lingkungan di mana kristal tumbuh mengubah bentuk eksternal dari kristal tanpa mengubah struktur j internal mereka kemudian hasil kebiasaan yang berbeda. Kristal kebiasaan dipengaruhi oleh adanya pengotor, konsentrasi, tingkat kristalisasi, dan hidrodinamika di crystallizer tersebut. cole et al, [73] menggambarkan proses pemadatan sebagai "kemasan partikel dengan difusi ke ruang hampa, elastis dan plastik deformasi, fraktur dan kerja dingin dan. akhirnya. kompresi bahan padat." Satu atau lebih dari subproses tersebut dapat dipengaruhi oleh bentuk kristal dan kebiasaan. Beberapa investigasi polimorfisme dan kristal kebiasaan zat obat yang berkaitan dengan pengolahan farmasi diinginkan selama evaluasi preformulation nya. terutama ketika bahan aktif diharapkan merupakan sebagian dari massa tablet. Shell [74] mempelajari kebiasaan kristal dan perilaku tablet dari sembilan banyak berbeda dari obat percobaan. Menggunakan kristal tunggal Data X-ray dan X-ray pola difraksi serbuk, ia menemukan bahwa rasio intensitas difraksi pada sudut 12. 09 dan 8. 72 ° berkorelasi dengan baik dengan perilaku tablet dari sembilan banyak seperti [udged oleh operator yang berpengalaman. Summers et al. [75] menunjukkan bahwa polimorf yang berbeda dari sulfathiazole, barbitone. dan asprin berbeda secara signifikan dalam karakteristik kompresi mereka. Demikian juga, aizumi 1m dan rekan kerja {76] mengamati bahwa bentuk kristal indometasin menghasilkan tablet dengan karakteristik kekerasan yang lebih baik daripada bentuk amorf. D. Karakteristik kristal dan Stabilitas Fisik Meskipun zat obat mungkin ada dalam dua atau lebih bentuk polimorfik, hanya satu bentuk yang termodinamika stabil pada suhu tertentu dan tekanan. Bentuk-bentuk lain akan dikonversi ke bentuk stabil dengan waktu. Ini transformasi mungkin cepat atau lambat. Ketika transformasi tidak cepat, bentuk termodinamika tidak stabil disebut sebagai bentuk metastabil. Secara umum, polimorf stabil menunjukkan titik tertinggi leleh, yang kelarutan terendah, dan stabilitas kimia yang maksimal. Bentuk metastabil tetap dapat menunjukkan bahan kimia yang cukup dan stabilitas fisik Undershelf kondisi untuk membenarkan penggunaannya untuk alasan pembubaran yang lebih baik atau kemudahan dari tablet. Jika menggunakan bentuk metastabil dianjurkan, untuk alasan apa pun, seorang ilmuwan preformulation harus menjamin integritas di bawah berbagai kondisi pengolahan sehingga kondisi penanganan yang tepat dapat didefinisikan. transformasi polimorfik dapat terjadi selama grinding, granulasi, pengeringan, dan mengompresi operasi. Digoxin, spironolactone, dan estradiol dilaporkan menjalani transformasi polimorfik selama proses penghalusan [77]. Fenilbutazon mengalami transformasi polimorfik akibat grinding dan kompresi R78]. Granulasi, karena memerlukan penggunaan pelarut, dapat menyebabkan formasi melarutkan. Di sisi lain, jika molekul awalnya solvat, langkah pengeringan dalam proses dapat menyebabkan transformasi ke kristal anhidrat atau bentuk amorf {79]. Baik pengetahuan tentang polimorfisme dan stabilitas polimorfik juga diperlukan untuk memprediksi stabilitas fisik jangka panjang bentuk sediaan. Yamaoka et al, [80] diamati cappinglike retak pada tablet kristal Anydrous carbochromen hidroklorida pada penyimpanan di bawah kondisi kelembaban tinggi. Hal ini bertekad untuk menjadi karena transformasi bentuk anhidrat ke dalam sebuah dihidrat. Bahkan ketika bentuk yang stabil adalah bentuk pilihan, disarankan untuk memantau bentuk kristal masing-masing banyak bahan baku. Dalam kasus kalsium pantothenate, bentuk yang diinginkan adalah bentuk kristal. Dalam penyusunan tablet multivitamin, kalsium pantothenate adalah pasir dengan beberapa vitamin lain dan eksipien yang tepat. Sebuah bentuk amorf kalsium pantothenate dikenal yang siap beralih ke bentuk stabil ketika dibasahi dengan berbagai pelarut yang digunakan sebagai pelarut granulasi. Penggunaan bentuk amorf dalam multivitamin tablet dibuat dengan proses granulasi adalah, bagaimanapun, tidak diinginkan karena transformasi polimorfik membuat granulasi massa lengket, membuat granulasi lanjut hampir tidak mungkin.

































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