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PAT has defined the legitimate prob

PAT has defined the legitimate problems and methods for the researchers. The problems that concern the positive researchers are the following: Why does management choose certain accounting methods, not others? Why does management switch from one accounting method to another? What incentives and constraints does management face in making accounting choices? Do accounting earnings contain information for stock pricing? These questions have occupied the positive accounting researchers for the last four decades.

Watts and Zimmerman (1978) propagated the idea that management’s incentives determined their lobbying position on an accounting standard. Later researchers expanded this idea and developed many hypotheses linking management’s incentives and his or her accounting choice behavior. Since 1978, PAT researchers have engaged themselves in the expansion and articulation of this theory.

Two examples illustrate the above point. The first one is the measurement of the dependent variable (i.e., accounting choice by management) in studies of earnings management. Early researchers (e.g., Deakin, 1979; Hagerman & Zmijewski, 1979; Dhaliwal, 1980) investigated the choice of a single accounting procedure (e.g., depreciation methods, inventory costing methods) at a time. This led to the

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Positive Accounting Theory and Science


criticism that managers manipulate earnings numbers not through a single accounting procedure but through a number of accounting procedures that are available to management. Zmijewski and Hagerman (1981) improved upon previous studies by investigating a portfolio of accounting procedures. Healy (1985) went further and used accounting accruals as the dependent variable to capture the effects of a host of discretionary decisions – both accounting and real – by management. While accruals provide a summary measure of managerial discretion and are possibly an improvement over previous studies, it suffers from certain shortcomings (Kaplan, 1985). Healy (1985) uses total accruals as a proxy for discretionary accruals. Researchers (e.g., Kaplan, 1985; McNichols & Wilson, 1988) have asked whether total accruals are all discretionary in nature. This then engages positive researchers to design better models of discretionary accruals. DeAngelo (1986), Dechow & Dichev (2002), Dechow & Sloan (1991), Dechow, Sloan, & Sweeney (1995), Jones (1991), Kothari, Leone, & Wasley (2005), and Teoh et al. (1998) have developed different models of discretionary accruals.

Secondly, as mentioned earlier, the three most tested hypotheses are the bonus plan hypothesis, the debt-equity hypothesis, and the size hypothesis. Early studies used crude proxies of variables representing managerial bonus, debt covenant constraint, and political cost. However, as time passed, researchers refined both theory and the variables. For example, early researchers used a dummy variable to represent the existence of bonus plan to test the bonus plan hypothesis. Later researchers (e.g., Healy, 1985) examined the details of bonus plan and generated hypotheses linking bonus plan details and direction of earnings management. Similar efforts are extant (e.g., Duke & Hunt 1990; Press & Weintrop 1990) in articulating the debt-equity hypothesis. Furthermore, early researchers (e.g., Watts
& Zimmerman, 1978) used size as a proxy for political cost. This was criticized on the ground that size might be a proxy for variables other than political cost (Watts & Zimmerman, 1990). Later studies examined managers’ accounting choice behavior in response to situations that reflect firms’ sensitivity to specific political situations. Jones (1991) investigated the accounting choice behavior of managers of domestic producers that would benefit from import protection.

The above examples illustrate (a) how one study built on previous studies and (b) how PAT defines the particular questions addressed. These examples also illustrate that while PAT researchers have been committed to the basic framework for investigating accounting choices (i.e., management incentives explain accounting choices), they have been critical within that framework. Thus, they have made constructive criticisms of colleagues’ works and engaged themselves to developing better models.


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PAT has defined the legitimate problems and methods for the researchers. The problems that concern the positive researchers are the following: Why does management choose certain accounting methods, not others? Why does management switch from one accounting method to another? What incentives and constraints does management face in making accounting choices? Do accounting earnings contain information for stock pricing? These questions have occupied the positive accounting researchers for the last four decades.Watts and Zimmerman (1978) propagated the idea that management’s incentives determined their lobbying position on an accounting standard. Later researchers expanded this idea and developed many hypotheses linking management’s incentives and his or her accounting choice behavior. Since 1978, PAT researchers have engaged themselves in the expansion and articulation of this theory.Two examples illustrate the above point. The first one is the measurement of the dependent variable (i.e., accounting choice by management) in studies of earnings management. Early researchers (e.g., Deakin, 1979; Hagerman & Zmijewski, 1979; Dhaliwal, 1980) investigated the choice of a single accounting procedure (e.g., depreciation methods, inventory costing methods) at a time. This led to the 142 Positive Accounting Theory and Science criticism that managers manipulate earnings numbers not through a single accounting procedure but through a number of accounting procedures that are available to management. Zmijewski and Hagerman (1981) improved upon previous studies by investigating a portfolio of accounting procedures. Healy (1985) went further and used accounting accruals as the dependent variable to capture the effects of a host of discretionary decisions – both accounting and real – by management. While accruals provide a summary measure of managerial discretion and are possibly an improvement over previous studies, it suffers from certain shortcomings (Kaplan, 1985). Healy (1985) uses total accruals as a proxy for discretionary accruals. Researchers (e.g., Kaplan, 1985; McNichols & Wilson, 1988) have asked whether total accruals are all discretionary in nature. This then engages positive researchers to design better models of discretionary accruals. DeAngelo (1986), Dechow & Dichev (2002), Dechow & Sloan (1991), Dechow, Sloan, & Sweeney (1995), Jones (1991), Kothari, Leone, & Wasley (2005), and Teoh et al. (1998) have developed different models of discretionary accruals.Secondly, as mentioned earlier, the three most tested hypotheses are the bonus plan hypothesis, the debt-equity hypothesis, and the size hypothesis. Early studies used crude proxies of variables representing managerial bonus, debt covenant constraint, and political cost. However, as time passed, researchers refined both theory and the variables. For example, early researchers used a dummy variable to represent the existence of bonus plan to test the bonus plan hypothesis. Later researchers (e.g., Healy, 1985) examined the details of bonus plan and generated hypotheses linking bonus plan details and direction of earnings management. Similar efforts are extant (e.g., Duke & Hunt 1990; Press & Weintrop 1990) in articulating the debt-equity hypothesis. Furthermore, early researchers (e.g., Watts& Zimmerman, 1978) used size as a proxy for political cost. This was criticized on the ground that size might be a proxy for variables other than political cost (Watts & Zimmerman, 1990). Later studies examined managers’ accounting choice behavior in response to situations that reflect firms’ sensitivity to specific political situations. Jones (1991) investigated the accounting choice behavior of managers of domestic producers that would benefit from import protection.The above examples illustrate (a) how one study built on previous studies and (b) how PAT defines the particular questions addressed. These examples also illustrate that while PAT researchers have been committed to the basic framework for investigating accounting choices (i.e., management incentives explain accounting choices), they have been critical within that framework. Thus, they have made constructive criticisms of colleagues’ works and engaged themselves to developing better models.
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PAT telah mendefinisikan masalah sah dan metode untuk peneliti. Permasalahan yang menyangkut peneliti positif adalah sebagai berikut: Mengapa manajemen memilih metode akuntansi tertentu, bukan orang lain? Mengapa beralih manajemen dari satu metode akuntansi yang lain? Apa insentif dan kendala tidak manajemen wajah dalam membuat pilihan akuntansi? Apakah laba akuntansi berisi informasi untuk harga saham? Pertanyaan-pertanyaan ini telah menduduki peneliti akuntansi positif selama empat dekade terakhir. Watts dan Zimmerman (1978) disebarkan gagasan bahwa insentif manajemen ditentukan posisi lobi mereka pada standar akuntansi. Kemudian peneliti diperluas ide ini dan mengembangkan banyak hipotesis yang menghubungkan insentif manajemen dan atau perilaku pilihan akuntansi nya. Sejak tahun 1978, peneliti PAT telah terlibat diri dalam ekspansi dan artikulasi teori ini. Dua contoh menggambarkan titik di atas. Yang pertama adalah pengukuran variabel dependen (yaitu, akuntansi pilihan oleh manajemen) dalam studi manajemen laba. Peneliti awal (misalnya, Deakin, 1979; Hagerman & Zmijewski, 1979; Dhaliwal, 1980) menyelidiki pilihan prosedur akuntansi tunggal (misalnya, metode penyusutan, persediaan biaya metode) pada suatu waktu. Hal ini menyebabkan 142 Positif Teori Akuntansi dan Ilmu kritik bahwa manajer memanipulasi angka laba tidak melalui prosedur akuntansi tunggal tetapi melalui sejumlah prosedur akuntansi yang tersedia untuk manajemen. Zmijewski dan Hagerman (1981) diperbaiki penelitian sebelumnya dengan menyelidiki portofolio prosedur akuntansi. Healy (1985) melangkah lebih jauh dan digunakan akrual akuntansi sebagai variabel dependen untuk menangkap efek dari sejumlah keputusan diskresioner - kedua akuntansi dan nyata - oleh manajemen. Sementara akrual memberikan ukuran ringkasan kebijaksanaan manajerial dan mungkin merupakan perbaikan dari penelitian sebelumnya, itu menderita kekurangan tertentu (Kaplan, 1985). Healy (1985) menggunakan total akrual sebagai proxy untuk akrual diskresioner. Para peneliti (misalnya, Kaplan, 1985; McNichols & Wilson, 1988) telah meminta apakah total akrual diskresioner semua di alam. Hal ini kemudian melibatkan peneliti positif untuk merancang model yang lebih baik dari akrual diskresioner. DeAngelo (1986), Dechow & Dichev (2002), Dechow & Sloan (1991), Dechow, Sloan, & Sweeney (1995), Jones (1991), Kothari, Leone, & Wasley (2005), dan Teoh et al. (1998) telah mengembangkan model yang berbeda dari akrual diskresioner. Kedua, seperti yang disebutkan sebelumnya, tiga hipotesis yang paling diuji adalah hipotesis rencana bonus, hipotesis utang-ekuitas, dan ukuran hipotesis. Studi awal digunakan proxy mentah variabel yang mewakili bonus manajerial, kendala perjanjian utang, dan biaya politik. Namun, seiring waktu berlalu, para peneliti halus teori dan variabel. Sebagai contoh, para peneliti awal menggunakan variabel dummy untuk mewakili adanya rencana bonus untuk menguji rencana bonus hipotesis. Kemudian peneliti (misalnya, Healy, 1985) meneliti rincian rencana bonus dan hipotesis yang dihasilkan menghubungkan bonus rincian rencana dan arah manajemen laba. Upaya serupa yang masih ada (misalnya, Duke & berburu 1990; Press & Weintrop 1990) dalam mengartikulasikan hipotesis utang-ekuitas. Selanjutnya, peneliti awal (misalnya, Watts & Zimmerman, 1978) digunakan ukuran sebagai proxy untuk biaya politik. Ini dikritik di tanah ukuran yang mungkin menjadi proxy untuk variabel selain biaya politik (Watts & Zimmerman, 1990). Kemudian studi meneliti perilaku akuntansi pilihan dalam menanggapi situasi yang mencerminkan perusahaan 'manajer kepekaan terhadap situasi politik tertentu. Jones (1991) meneliti perilaku pilihan akuntansi manajer dari produsen dalam negeri yang akan mendapat manfaat dari perlindungan impor. Contoh di atas menggambarkan (a) bagaimana satu studi dibangun pada studi sebelumnya dan (b) bagaimana PAT mendefinisikan pertanyaan tertentu ditangani. Contoh-contoh ini juga menggambarkan bahwa sementara peneliti PAT telah berkomitmen untuk kerangka dasar untuk menyelidiki pilihan akuntansi (yaitu, insentif manajemen menjelaskan pilihan akuntansi), mereka telah kritis dalam kerangka itu. Dengan demikian, mereka telah membuat kritik yang konstruktif dari karya rekan 'dan terlibat diri untuk mengembangkan model yang lebih baik.


















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