(1) Income smoothing. Companies generally prefer to report a steadytre terjemahan - (1) Income smoothing. Companies generally prefer to report a steadytre Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

(1) Income smoothing. Companies gen

(1) Income smoothing. Companies generally prefer to report a steady
trend of growth in profit rather than to show volatile profits with a series
of dramatic rises and falls. This is achieved by making unnecessarily high
provisions for liabilities and against asset values in good years so that
these provisions can be reduced, thereby improving reported profits, in
bad years. Advocates of this approach argue that it is a measure against
the ‘short-termism’ of judging an investment on the basis of the yields
achieved in the immediate following years. It also avoids raising
expectations so high in good years that the company is unable to deliver
what is required subsequently. Against this is argued that:
• if the trading conditions of a business are in fact volatile then investors
have a right to know this;
• income smoothing may conceal long-term changes in the profit trend.
This type of creative accounting is not special to the UK. In countries with
highly conservative accounting systems the ‘income smoothing’ effect can
be particularly pronounced because of the high level of provisions that
accumulate. Blake et al . (1995) discuss a German example. Another bias
that sometimes arises is called ‘big bath’ accounting, where a company
making a bad loss seeks to maximise the reported loss in that year so that
future years will appear better.
(2) A variant on income smoothing is to manipulate profit to tie in to
forecasts. Fox (1997) reports on how accounting policies at Microsoft are
designed, within the normal accounting rules, to match reported earnings
to profit forecasts. When Microsoft sell software a large part of the profit
is deferred to future years to cover potential upgrade and customer
Table 2.1 Opportunities for creative accounting
THE ETHICS OF CREATIVE ACCOUNTING 29
support costs. This perfectly respectable, and highly conservative,
accounting policy means that future earnings are easy to predict.
(3) Company directors may keep an income-boosting accounting policy
change in hand to distract attention from unwelcome news. Collingwood
(1991) reports on how a change in accounting method boosted K-Mart’s
quarterly profit figure by some $160 million, by a happy coincidence
distracting attention from the company slipping back from being the
largest retailer in the USA to the number two slot.
(4) Creative accounting may help maintain or boost the share price
both by reducing the apparent levels of borrowing, so making the
company appear subject to less risk, and by creating the appearance of a
good profit trend. This helps the company to raise capital from new share
issues, offer their own shares in takeover bids, and resist takeover by
other companies.
(5) If the directors engage in ‘insider dealing’ in their company’s shares
they can use creative accounting to delay the release of information for the
market, thereby enhancing their opportunity to benefit from inside
knowledge.
It should be noted that, in an efficient market, analysts will not be
fooled by cosmetic accounting charges. Indeed, the alert analyst will see
income-boosting accounting changes as a possible indicator of weakness.
Dharan and Lev (1993) report on a study showing poor share price
performance in the years following income-increasing accounting
changes. Another set of reasons for creative accounting, which applies to
all companies, arises because companies are subject to various forms of
contractual rights, obligations and constraints based on the amounts
reported in the accounts. Examples of such contractual issues are as
follows.
Example 1 It is common for loan agreements to include a restriction on
the total amount that a company is entitled to borrow computed as a
multiple of the total share capital and reserves. Where a company has
borrowings that are near this limit there is an incentive to:
• choose accounting methods that increase reported profit and
consequently the reserves (Sweeney (1994) reports that companies
nearing violation of debt covenants are two to three times more likely
to make income increasing accounting policy changes than other
companies);
• arrange finance in a way that will not be reflected as a liability on the
balance sheet.
An accounting rule change can plunge a company into difficulties with
loan agreements. Thus in the USA, when the FASB introduced a rule
30 THE ETHICS OF CREATIVE ACCOUNTING
requiring that income from extended warranties must be allocated over
the life of the warranty rather than being recognised at the time of sale,
consumer electronics retailers were badly hit:
The biggest problem could be with the banks that keeps a close eye
on debt to equity ratios…so stores that borrowed heavily to build
inventory and finance expansion could end up in technical violation
of bank lending agreements pegged to certain ratios.
(Therrien 1991:42)
Example 2 Some companies, such as public utilities like electricity and
telephone companies, are subject to the authority of a government
regulator who prescribes the maximum amounts they can charge. If such
companies report high profits then the regulator is likely to respond by
curbing prices. These companies, therefore, have an interest in choosing
accounting methods that tend to reduce their reported profits.
Example 3 A directors’ bonus scheme may be linked to profits or to
the company share price. Where the link is to the share price then clearly
the directors will be motivated to present accounts that will impress the
stock market. Where a bonus is based on reported profit the scheme often
stipulates that the bonus is a percentage of profit above a minimum level,
and is paid up to a maximum level.
Thus:
1 If the profit figure is between the two levels then directors will
choose accounting methods that lift profit towards the maximum.
2 If the profit is below the minimum level directors will choose
accounting methods that maximise provisions made so that in future
years these provisions can be written back to boost profit.
3 Similarly if the profit is above the maximum level directors will seek
to bring the figure down to that level so that the profit can be boosted
in later years.
The timing of the announcement of gains and losses can have a major
impact on bonuses. In January 1991 Westinghouse announced unaudited
record earnings of $1 billion and related hefty bonuses; in February 1991
bad debt write-offs of $975 million were announced, putting the
legitimacy of bonuses in question (Schroeder and Spiro 1992).
Example 4 Where a part or division of a business is subject to a profitsharing arrangement then this may affect the preferred accounting
methods. In the UK, for example, we know of a local council that had a
contract with a company for the company to manage the council’s leisure
centre. The contract provided for profits to be shared equally between the
THE ETHICS OF CREATIVE ACCOUNTING 31
two parties. At the end of one year, not surprisingly the company’s
accountants said the centre had made a loss and the council’s accountants
said it had made a profit. The problem was solved by an agreement for
the company to pay a fixed amount of money each year instead of a
profit share. In the USA film companies have been notorious for claiming
massive expenses against successful films so that writers, producers, and
actors on ‘net profit’ deals receive little or no remuneration (Grover
1991a).
Example 5 Taxation may also be a factor in creative accounting in
those circumstances where taxable income is measured by relation to the
accounting figures.
Example 6 When a new manager takes over responsibility for a unit
there is a motivation to make provisions that ensure that any losses
appear as the responsibility of the previous manager. Dahl (1996) reports
on a survey of US bank managers that found provisions for loan losses
tended to be higher in the year of change in manager.
THE ETHICAL PERSPECTIVE
Revsine (1991) offers a discussion of the ‘selective financial
misrepresentation hypothesis’ which can be seen as offering some
defence for the practice of ‘creative accounting’, at least in the private
sector, drawing heavily on the literature on agency theory and positive
accounting theory. He considers the problem in relation to both
managers and shareholders and argues that each can draw benefits from
‘loose’ accounting standards that provide managers with latitude in
timing the reporting of income.
Revsine discusses the benefits to managers in being able to manipulate
income between years so as to maximise their bonus entitlements, as
discussed above. He argues that:
It is reasonable to presume that those who negotiate managers’
employment contracts anticipate such opportunistic behaviour and
reduce the compensation package accordingly…since they
(managers) have already been ‘charged’ for the opportunistic
actions they must now engage in them in order to achieve the
benefits they ‘paid’ for.
(1991:18)
Shareholders also benefit from the fact that managers can manipulate
reported earnings to ‘smooth’ income since this may decrease the
apparent volatility of earnings and so increase the value of their shares.
32 THE ETHICS OF CREATIVE ACCOUNTING
Other management action, such as avoiding default on loan agreements,
can also benefit shareholders.
At the heart of Revsine’s analysis are the implicit views that:
• the prime role of accounting is as a mechanism for monitoring
contracts between managers and other groups providing finance;
• market mechanisms will operate efficiently, identifying the prospect of
accounting manipulation and reflecting this appropriately in pricing
and contracting decisions.
On this basis he argues for freezing all existing accounting standards in
the private sector, to be used as ‘the basis for all future contracting and
reporting’. Instead future FASB work should be applied to the public
sector, including institutions such as the savings and loans where
publicly funded guarantees underpin their
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(1) Income smoothing. Companies generally prefer to report a steadytrend of growth in profit rather than to show volatile profits with a seriesof dramatic rises and falls. This is achieved by making unnecessarily highprovisions for liabilities and against asset values in good years so thatthese provisions can be reduced, thereby improving reported profits, inbad years. Advocates of this approach argue that it is a measure againstthe ‘short-termism’ of judging an investment on the basis of the yieldsachieved in the immediate following years. It also avoids raisingexpectations so high in good years that the company is unable to deliverwhat is required subsequently. Against this is argued that:• if the trading conditions of a business are in fact volatile then investorshave a right to know this;• income smoothing may conceal long-term changes in the profit trend.This type of creative accounting is not special to the UK. In countries withhighly conservative accounting systems the ‘income smoothing’ effect canbe particularly pronounced because of the high level of provisions thataccumulate. Blake et al . (1995) discuss a German example. Another biasthat sometimes arises is called ‘big bath’ accounting, where a companymaking a bad loss seeks to maximise the reported loss in that year so thatfuture years will appear better.(2) A variant on income smoothing is to manipulate profit to tie in toforecasts. Fox (1997) reports on how accounting policies at Microsoft aredesigned, within the normal accounting rules, to match reported earningsto profit forecasts. When Microsoft sell software a large part of the profitis deferred to future years to cover potential upgrade and customerTable 2.1 Opportunities for creative accountingTHE ETHICS OF CREATIVE ACCOUNTING 29support costs. This perfectly respectable, and highly conservative,accounting policy means that future earnings are easy to predict.(3) Company directors may keep an income-boosting accounting policychange in hand to distract attention from unwelcome news. Collingwood(1991) reports on how a change in accounting method boosted K-Mart’squarterly profit figure by some $160 million, by a happy coincidencedistracting attention from the company slipping back from being thelargest retailer in the USA to the number two slot.(4) Creative accounting may help maintain or boost the share priceboth by reducing the apparent levels of borrowing, so making thecompany appear subject to less risk, and by creating the appearance of agood profit trend. This helps the company to raise capital from new shareissues, offer their own shares in takeover bids, and resist takeover byother companies.(5) If the directors engage in ‘insider dealing’ in their company’s sharesthey can use creative accounting to delay the release of information for themarket, thereby enhancing their opportunity to benefit from inside
knowledge.
It should be noted that, in an efficient market, analysts will not be
fooled by cosmetic accounting charges. Indeed, the alert analyst will see
income-boosting accounting changes as a possible indicator of weakness.
Dharan and Lev (1993) report on a study showing poor share price
performance in the years following income-increasing accounting
changes. Another set of reasons for creative accounting, which applies to
all companies, arises because companies are subject to various forms of
contractual rights, obligations and constraints based on the amounts
reported in the accounts. Examples of such contractual issues are as
follows.
Example 1 It is common for loan agreements to include a restriction on
the total amount that a company is entitled to borrow computed as a
multiple of the total share capital and reserves. Where a company has
borrowings that are near this limit there is an incentive to:
• choose accounting methods that increase reported profit and
consequently the reserves (Sweeney (1994) reports that companies
nearing violation of debt covenants are two to three times more likely
to make income increasing accounting policy changes than other
companies);
• arrange finance in a way that will not be reflected as a liability on the
balance sheet.
An accounting rule change can plunge a company into difficulties with
loan agreements. Thus in the USA, when the FASB introduced a rule
30 THE ETHICS OF CREATIVE ACCOUNTING
requiring that income from extended warranties must be allocated over
the life of the warranty rather than being recognised at the time of sale,
consumer electronics retailers were badly hit:
The biggest problem could be with the banks that keeps a close eye
on debt to equity ratios…so stores that borrowed heavily to build
inventory and finance expansion could end up in technical violation
of bank lending agreements pegged to certain ratios.
(Therrien 1991:42)
Example 2 Some companies, such as public utilities like electricity and
telephone companies, are subject to the authority of a government
regulator who prescribes the maximum amounts they can charge. If such
companies report high profits then the regulator is likely to respond by
curbing prices. These companies, therefore, have an interest in choosing
accounting methods that tend to reduce their reported profits.
Example 3 A directors’ bonus scheme may be linked to profits or to
the company share price. Where the link is to the share price then clearly
the directors will be motivated to present accounts that will impress the
stock market. Where a bonus is based on reported profit the scheme often
stipulates that the bonus is a percentage of profit above a minimum level,
and is paid up to a maximum level.
Thus:
1 If the profit figure is between the two levels then directors will
choose accounting methods that lift profit towards the maximum.
2 If the profit is below the minimum level directors will choose
accounting methods that maximise provisions made so that in future
years these provisions can be written back to boost profit.
3 Similarly if the profit is above the maximum level directors will seek
to bring the figure down to that level so that the profit can be boosted
in later years.
The timing of the announcement of gains and losses can have a major
impact on bonuses. In January 1991 Westinghouse announced unaudited
record earnings of $1 billion and related hefty bonuses; in February 1991
bad debt write-offs of $975 million were announced, putting the
legitimacy of bonuses in question (Schroeder and Spiro 1992).
Example 4 Where a part or division of a business is subject to a profitsharing arrangement then this may affect the preferred accounting
methods. In the UK, for example, we know of a local council that had a
contract with a company for the company to manage the council’s leisure
centre. The contract provided for profits to be shared equally between the
THE ETHICS OF CREATIVE ACCOUNTING 31
two parties. At the end of one year, not surprisingly the company’s
accountants said the centre had made a loss and the council’s accountants
said it had made a profit. The problem was solved by an agreement for
the company to pay a fixed amount of money each year instead of a
profit share. In the USA film companies have been notorious for claiming
massive expenses against successful films so that writers, producers, and
actors on ‘net profit’ deals receive little or no remuneration (Grover
1991a).
Example 5 Taxation may also be a factor in creative accounting in
those circumstances where taxable income is measured by relation to the
accounting figures.
Example 6 When a new manager takes over responsibility for a unit
there is a motivation to make provisions that ensure that any losses
appear as the responsibility of the previous manager. Dahl (1996) reports
on a survey of US bank managers that found provisions for loan losses
tended to be higher in the year of change in manager.
THE ETHICAL PERSPECTIVE
Revsine (1991) offers a discussion of the ‘selective financial
misrepresentation hypothesis’ which can be seen as offering some
defence for the practice of ‘creative accounting’, at least in the private
sector, drawing heavily on the literature on agency theory and positive
accounting theory. He considers the problem in relation to both
managers and shareholders and argues that each can draw benefits from
‘loose’ accounting standards that provide managers with latitude in
timing the reporting of income.
Revsine discusses the benefits to managers in being able to manipulate
income between years so as to maximise their bonus entitlements, as
discussed above. He argues that:
It is reasonable to presume that those who negotiate managers’
employment contracts anticipate such opportunistic behaviour and
reduce the compensation package accordingly…since they
(managers) have already been ‘charged’ for the opportunistic
actions they must now engage in them in order to achieve the
benefits they ‘paid’ for.
(1991:18)
Shareholders also benefit from the fact that managers can manipulate
reported earnings to ‘smooth’ income since this may decrease the
apparent volatility of earnings and so increase the value of their shares.
32 THE ETHICS OF CREATIVE ACCOUNTING
Other management action, such as avoiding default on loan agreements,
can also benefit shareholders.
At the heart of Revsine’s analysis are the implicit views that:
• the prime role of accounting is as a mechanism for monitoring
contracts between managers and other groups providing finance;
• market mechanisms will operate efficiently, identifying the prospect of
accounting manipulation and reflecting this appropriately in pricing
and contracting decisions.
On this basis he argues for freezing all existing accounting standards in
the private sector, to be used as ‘the basis for all future contracting and
reporting’. Instead future FASB work should be applied to the public
sector, including institutions such as the savings and loans where
publicly funded guarantees underpin their
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(1) perataan laba. Perusahaan umumnya memilih untuk melaporkan stabil
tren pertumbuhan laba daripada untuk menunjukkan keuntungan stabil dengan serangkaian
dari kenaikan dramatis dan jatuh. Hal ini dicapai dengan membuat tidak perlu tinggi
ketentuan kewajiban dan terhadap nilai aset di tahun yang baik sehingga
ketentuan tersebut dapat dikurangi, dengan demikian meningkatkan keuntungan dilaporkan, di
tahun yang buruk. Para pendukung pendekatan ini berpendapat bahwa itu adalah ukuran terhadap
para 'pendek termism' menilai investasi atas dasar hasil panen
yang dicapai dalam tahun-tahun berikutnya segera. Hal ini juga menghindari menaikkan
harapan begitu tinggi di tahun yang baik bahwa perusahaan tidak dapat memberikan
apa yang dibutuhkan selanjutnya. Terhadap ini berpendapat bahwa:
• jika kondisi perdagangan bisnis sebenarnya bergejolak maka investor
memiliki hak untuk mengetahui hal
ini;. • perataan laba dapat menyembunyikan perubahan jangka panjang dalam tren laba
jenis ini akuntansi kreatif tidak khusus untuk Inggris. Di negara-negara dengan
sistem akuntansi yang sangat konservatif 'perataan laba' efek dapat
secara khusus oleh karena tingginya tingkat ketentuan yang
menumpuk. Blake et al. (1995) mendiskusikan contoh Jerman. Bias lain
yang kadang-kadang muncul disebut akuntansi 'mandi besar', di mana sebuah perusahaan
membuat kerugian buruk berusaha untuk memaksimalkan melaporkan kerugian pada tahun itu sehingga
tahun depan akan tampak lebih baik.
(2) Sebuah varian perataan laba adalah untuk memanipulasi laba untuk mengikat untuk
prakiraan. Fox (1997) melaporkan tentang bagaimana kebijakan akuntansi di Microsoft
dirancang, dalam aturan akuntansi normal, untuk mencocokkan laba yang dilaporkan
perkiraan laba. Ketika perangkat lunak Microsoft menjual sebagian besar keuntungan
ditangguhkan untuk tahun-tahun mendatang untuk menutupi peningkatan dan pelanggan potensial
Tabel 2.1 Peluang untuk kreatif akuntansi
ETIKA DARI CREATIVE AKUNTANSI 29
biaya dukungan. Sempurna terhormat, dan sangat konservatif, ini
kebijakan akuntansi berarti bahwa laba masa depan yang mudah diprediksi.
(3) Direksi Perusahaan dapat menjaga akuntansi kebijakan pendapatan meningkatkan
perubahan di tangan untuk mengalihkan perhatian dari berita yang tidak diinginkan. Collingwood
(1991) melaporkan tentang bagaimana perubahan dalam metode akuntansi mendorong K-Mart
kuartalan laba angka oleh beberapa $ 160 juta, dengan senang kebetulan
mengalihkan perhatian dari perusahaan tergelincir kembali dari menjadi
pengecer terbesar di Amerika Serikat untuk nomor dua slot.
( 4) akuntansi Creative dapat membantu mempertahankan atau meningkatkan harga saham
baik dengan mengurangi tingkat nyata dari pinjaman, sehingga membuat
perusahaan muncul tunduk kurang risiko, dan dengan menciptakan penampilan
tren keuntungan yang baik. Hal ini membantu perusahaan untuk meningkatkan modal dari saham baru
isu, menawarkan saham mereka sendiri dalam tawaran pengambilalihan, dan menolak pengambilalihan oleh
perusahaan lain.
(5) Jika para direktur terlibat dalam 'insider berurusan' di saham perusahaan mereka
mereka dapat menggunakan akuntansi kreatif untuk menunda rilis informasi untuk
pasar, sehingga meningkatkan kesempatan mereka untuk mendapatkan keuntungan dari dalam
pengetahuan.
Perlu dicatat bahwa, dalam pasar yang efisien, analis tidak akan
tertipu oleh biaya akuntansi kosmetik. Memang, analis peringatan akan melihat
perubahan akuntansi pendapatan meningkatkan sebagai indikator kemungkinan kelemahan.
Dharan dan Lev (1993) melaporkan sebuah studi yang menunjukkan harga saham miskin
kinerja di tahun-tahun berikutnya akuntansi pendapatan meningkat
perubahan. Set alasan untuk akuntansi kreatif, yang berlaku untuk
semua perusahaan, muncul karena perusahaan tunduk pada berbagai bentuk
hak kontrak, kewajiban dan kendala berdasarkan jumlah
yang dilaporkan dalam rekening. Contoh masalah kontrak tersebut adalah sebagai
berikut.
Contoh 1 Hal ini umum bagi perjanjian pinjaman untuk menyertakan pembatasan
jumlah total bahwa perusahaan berhak untuk meminjam dihitung sebagai
kelipatan dari total modal saham dan cadangan. Di mana perusahaan memiliki
pinjaman yang dekat batas ini ada insentif untuk:
• memilih metode akuntansi yang meningkatkan melaporkan laba dan
akibatnya cadangan (Sweeney (1994) melaporkan bahwa perusahaan
mendekati pelanggaran perjanjian utang adalah dua sampai tiga kali lebih mungkin
untuk membuat Pendapatan meningkat perubahan kebijakan akuntansi daripada yang lain
perusahaan);
• mengatur keuangan dengan cara yang tidak akan tercermin sebagai kewajiban pada
neraca.
Sebuah perubahan peraturan akuntansi dapat terjun perusahaan ke dalam kesulitan dengan
perjanjian pinjaman. Jadi di Amerika Serikat, ketika FASB mengeluarkan aturan
30 ETIKA AKUNTANSI CREATIVE
mengharuskan pendapatan dari jaminan diperpanjang harus dialokasikan lebih
kehidupan garansi bukannya diakui pada saat penjualan,
pengecer elektronik konsumen yang parah terkena:
The Masalah terbesar bisa dengan bank yang terus menutup mata
pada rasio hutang terhadap ekuitas ... jadi toko yang meminjam untuk membangun
persediaan dan ekspansi pembiayaan bisa berakhir melanggar teknis
perjanjian pinjaman bank dipatok untuk rasio tertentu.
(Therrien 1991: 42)
Contoh 2 Beberapa perusahaan, seperti utilitas publik seperti listrik dan
telepon perusahaan, tunduk pada otoritas pemerintah
regulator yang mengatur jumlah maksimum mereka dapat mengisi. Jika seperti
perusahaan melaporkan keuntungan yang tinggi maka regulator cenderung merespon dengan
membatasi harga. Perusahaan-perusahaan ini, oleh karena itu, memiliki kepentingan dalam memilih
metode akuntansi yang cenderung mengurangi melaporkan keuntungan mereka.
Skema bonus Contoh 3 Sebuah direksi mungkin terkait dengan keuntungan atau
harga saham perusahaan. Mana link adalah untuk harga saham maka jelas
direksi akan termotivasi untuk menyajikan account yang akan mengesankan
pasar saham. Di mana bonus berdasarkan laba dilaporkan skema sering
menetapkan bahwa bonus adalah persentase dari keuntungan di atas tingkat minimum,
dan dibayar hingga tingkat maksimum.
Jadi:
1 Jika angka keuntungan antara dua tingkat kemudian direktur akan
memilih metode akuntansi yang mengangkat laba terhadap maksimal.
2 Jika keuntungan di bawah direksi tingkat minimum akan memilih
metode akuntansi yang memaksimalkan ketentuan yang dibuat sehingga di masa depan
tahun ketentuan ini dapat ditulis kembali untuk meningkatkan keuntungan.
3 Demikian pula jika keuntungan berada di atas direksi tingkat maksimum akan berusaha
untuk membawa gambar ke tingkat itu sehingga keuntungan dapat ditingkatkan
di tahun kemudian.
Waktu pengumuman keuntungan dan kerugian dapat memiliki besar
dampak pada bonus. Pada Januari 1991 Westinghouse mengumumkan tidak diaudit
rekor pendapatan sebesar $ 1 miliar dan bonus yang lumayan terkait; pada Februari 1991
utang buruk write-off dari $ 975.000.000 diumumkan, menempatkan
legitimasi bonus yang bersangkutan (Schroeder dan Spiro 1992).
Contoh 4 Dimana bagian atau divisi bisnis tunduk pada pengaturan profitsharing maka hal ini dapat mempengaruhi pilihan akuntansi
metode. Di Inggris, misalnya, kita tahu dari dewan lokal yang memiliki
kontrak dengan perusahaan bagi perusahaan untuk mengelola rekreasi dewan
pusat. Berdasarkan kontrak tersebut, keuntungan yang akan dibagi sama rata antara
ETIKA AKUNTANSI CREATIVE 31
dua pihak. Pada akhir satu tahun, tidak mengherankan perusahaan
akuntan mengatakan pusat telah membuat kerugian dan akuntan dewan
mengatakan telah membuat keuntungan. Masalah ini diselesaikan oleh perjanjian untuk
perusahaan untuk membayar jumlah uang yang tetap setiap tahun bukannya
pembagian keuntungan. Di perusahaan film Amerika telah terkenal untuk mengklaim
biaya besar-besaran terhadap film-film sukses sehingga penulis, produser, dan
aktor di 'laba bersih' penawaran menerima sedikit atau tidak ada remunerasi (Grover
1991a).
Contoh 5 Perpajakan juga dapat menjadi faktor dalam akuntansi kreatif di
keadaan-keadaan di mana penghasilan kena pajak diukur dengan kaitannya dengan
angka akuntansi.
Contoh 6 Ketika manajer baru mengambil alih tanggung jawab untuk unit
ada motivasi untuk membuat ketentuan yang memastikan bahwa setiap kerugian
muncul sebagai tanggung jawab manajer sebelumnya. Dahl (1996) melaporkan
pada survei terhadap manajer bank AS yang ditemukan ketentuan untuk kerugian pinjaman
cenderung lebih tinggi pada tahun perubahan manajer.
THE ETIS PERSPEKTIF
Revsine (1991) menawarkan diskusi tentang 'selektif keuangan
keliru hipotesis' yang dapat dilihat sebagai menawarkan beberapa
pertahanan untuk praktek 'akuntansi kreatif', setidaknya di swasta
sektor, menggambar berat pada literatur tentang teori keagenan dan positif
teori akuntansi. Ia menganggap masalah dalam hubungannya dengan kedua
manajer dan pemegang saham dan berpendapat bahwa setiap dapat menarik manfaat dari
standar 'longgar' akuntansi yang menyediakan manajer dengan lintang di
waktu pelaporan pendapatan.
Revsine membahas manfaat bagi manajer untuk dapat memanipulasi
pendapatan antara tahun sehingga untuk memaksimalkan hak bonus mereka, seperti yang
dibahas di atas. Dia berpendapat bahwa:
Adalah masuk akal untuk menganggap bahwa mereka yang bernegosiasi manajer
kontrak kerja mengantisipasi perilaku oportunistik seperti dan
mengurangi paket kompensasi sesuai ... karena mereka
(manajer) telah 'dibebankan' untuk oportunistik
tindakan mereka sekarang harus terlibat di dalamnya di Untuk mencapai
manfaat yang mereka 'dibayar' untuk.
(1991: 18)
Pemegang saham juga mendapatkan keuntungan dari fakta bahwa manajer dapat memanipulasi
laba untuk pendapatan 'halus' dilaporkan karena ini dapat menurunkan
volatilitas jelas pendapatan dan meningkatkan nilai saham mereka .
32 ETIKA AKUNTANSI CREATIVE
tindakan manajemen lainnya, seperti menghindari default pada perjanjian
pinjaman,. juga bisa menguntungkan pemegang saham
Di jantung analisis Revsine ini adalah pandangan implisit bahwa:
• peran utama akuntansi adalah sebagai mekanisme untuk memantau
kontrak antara manajer dan kelompok lain yang menyediakan keuangan;
• mekanisme pasar akan beroperasi secara efisien, mengidentifikasi prospek
manipulasi akuntansi dan mencerminkan ini tepat di
harga. dan kontraktor keputusan
Atas dasar ini ia berpendapat untuk membekukan semua standar akuntansi yang ada di
sektor swasta, untuk digunakan sebagai 'dasar untuk semua kontrak masa depan dan
pelaporan'. Kerja FASB bukan masa depan harus diterapkan kepada masyarakat
sektor, termasuk lembaga-lembaga seperti tabungan dan pinjaman di mana
jaminan didanai publik mendukung mereka
Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
 
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