The thwack of leather on willow, the crunch as a body is tackled, the  terjemahan - The thwack of leather on willow, the crunch as a body is tackled, the  Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

The thwack of leather on willow, th

The thwack of leather on willow, the crunch as a body is tackled, the crowd’s roar reverberating around a stadium, the joy, emotion, feeling, wonder-ment, glory of sport. A billion people slavishly follow every kick, goal and red card of a World Cup, passionate supporters take to the streets to cele-brate their national team’s victory, the non-victorious mourn ‘their’ loss until the next opportunity to avenge defeat. Philosophers, poets, fans and academics have each tried to explain the intrinsic appeal of sport, to distil its essence, yet it remains seductively elusive, beyond lyrical and analytical efforts to define its ‘true’ nature. On a base level, sport is no more than a banal physical pastime, where bodies are set against one another to secure territory, take possession or outperform each other, or they compete only against themselves, challenging and conquering nature in the pursuit of increasingly extreme and amazing feats. But none who have known the highs and lows of competition would ever agree that sport is little more than actively passing the time. For many, sport means so much more.

Although definitions of the nature of sport remain tantalisingly beyond reach, an extensive set of ideologies circulates in contemporary society that nevertheless professes to explain inherent truths about sport. Young chil-dren are inducted into the concept of fair play, adolescents are encouraged to play not just by the rules but according to the spirit of the game, elite athletes are reminded that they are role models who offer moral guidance to the public, and the Olympic Games marks itself as an avenue for achieving international peace and understanding. Sport is thought to offer a range of lessons that can be transferred to other aspects of a participant’s life. It is supposed to teach social and moral behaviours, to impart a sense of com-mitment, discipline, dedication and sacrifice, and to strengthen character and fortitude in the face of adversity (Verroken 2003; Jenkins 2002; Butcher and Schneider 2001; Reid 1998). These noble characteristics remain largely uncontested outside the hallowed halls of the academy, and certainly in the public eye, attempts to interrogate and expose the ideological foundations of sport are met with scepticism. It is, however, important to acknowledge

The nature of sport 15

that the physical act of, for example, hitting a ball, tackling a player or riding a wave are not intrinsically meaningful beyond the confines of the game or activity, and any effort to solicit meaning explicitly reveals the ideolo-gical precepts that are inscribed onto sport from without. Yet modern sport has, in essence, come to signify more than mere recreation, and the philo-sophical significance attributed to sport differentiates it from other physical activities.

Whilst the idealised version of sport seems to be well entrenched, there are, nevertheless, concerns that the essence of sport is constantly under threat in a world where victory and financial gain seem to be more highly prized than playing fairly for the love of the game. Although commercialism and pro-fessionalism have influenced sport markedly, the influence of various tech-nologies is often held responsible for chipping away at the spirit of sport and undermining its philosophical foundations. These anxieties are provoked by a ‘technophobia’ that values ‘natural’ products more than human-made or artificial exemplars (Barilan and Weintraub 2001), and are reinforced by the mythology of sport as a purely natural enterprise. Physical recreations are imbued with moral and social meanings that derived, in part, from Romantic conceptions of nature and its restorative potential. Furthermore, the Victorian virtues of ‘fair play’ and an emerging scientific belief in the ‘natural’ body as an immutable biological category served to entrench hostilities towards technological interventions, particularly those that sought to enhance ath-letic capacity. For this reason, the ‘unnatural’, scientised or serious pursuit of athletic glory has traditionally sat uncomfortably with those who insist that sport celebrates the ‘natural’ athlete and his or her potential. Incorporating technological remedies into sport, to any degree, is thought to violate this ‘natural’ order and reveal that the ‘true spirit’ of sport is slowly dissipatingin favour of an emphasis on the unabashed pursuit of performance objectives.

The ingestion of performance enhancing drugs is regarded as perhaps the clearest evidence that the spirit of sport is at risk, and is passionately label-led a ‘crime’ that ‘undermin[es] the very essence of sport’ (O’Leary 2001: 29). Doping, it is reasoned, disrupts the level playing field upon which sport is predicated and offers ‘unfair’ advantages to those who partake. It is thought to reduce the element of chance and uncertainty that is funda-mental to sport, creating an ‘inevitable’ outcome where the doped compe-titor is assured of victory (Reid 1998). This, in turn, seemingly lessens the value of the contest as an accurate measure of the capacities of individual competitors. Those who take a ‘chemical shortcut’ have their characters and morality questioned, are thought to lack discipline and courage, and are regarded as incapable of respecting ‘natural capacities and limitations’ (Reid 1998). It is apparent that not only the health and well-being of athletes are jeopardised by the presence of illicit performance technologies, but the very moral fibre of sport itself is at risk.

Sport is, of course, replete with technological advancements, as evidenced in the booming sports technology industry that designs everything from cutting-

16 The nature of sport

edge apparel and equipment through to high tech playing surfaces and improved safety items. Each of these advances are designed, in part, to offer an athletic environment that allows the athlete to perform unimpeded. Yet, the introduction of new technologies is closely monitored to ensure the integrity of sport is protected. Training regimes, improved equipment and nutritional substances, for example, are scrutinised to ensure they do no more than merely facilitate performance by reducing external influences that may obscure or hinder the true capacity of an athlete. In this sense, the compe-titor’s physical ability should be reflected in, and measured by, their final result; however, assessing whether or not technologies inappropriately enhance performance is difficult, and the merits of various innovations are contested by sporting authorities, athletes, coaches and the public at large. The cur-rent controversy that surrounds the athletic application of hypoxic, or alti-tude, chambers attests to the fact that debates about technologies are never straightforward (Levine 2006; Kutt 2005).

To understand why technology is conceived as a threat to the sanctity of sport and its philosophical foundations, this chapter initially examines the ‘spirit’ of sport, locating its origins in nineteenth-century constructions ofMuscular Christianity and amateurism. As a ‘carefree’ and ‘joyous’ expres-sion of humanity, sport was regarded as an antidote to the twin threats of industrialisation and urbanisation, which were thought to jeopardise the health and hygiene of not only individuals but of society at large. Sport, in theory, offered a direct link to the natural realm, away from the confines of the city and the filth in the streets, and was inscribed with many of the Romantic qualities that were attributed to nature, particularly freedom and redemption. Nature, it was supposed, offered not only a site of rejuvenation but possessed an inherent morality that could inspire and instruct human society, and through its close association with this ‘untouched’ realm, sport was consequently imbued with a similar purpose. This chapter thus locates the origins of the ethical and moral precepts that underpin sport within broader constructions of nature as a moral touchstone. Nature represented an uncorrupted site against which the technological advances of human society could be measured, and sport was similarly regarded as part of an authentic realm into which technology could, and should, not intrude. As such, this chapter suggests that the social construction of nature as immu-table and ahistorical has considerable implications for the place and repu-tation of sport in contemporary society and particularly its relationship to technology.

The spirit of sport

In light of increasing commercialisation and professionalisation, sport is still imaged as a natural, carefree activity that offers joy and freedom whilst imparting a sense of morality to its participants. Whilst it may seem endangered by commercial influences, purists are comforted in the nostalgic

The nature of sport 17

memory of various ‘golden ages’ where sport is alleged to have found its true expression, celebrated not for winning and the financial gain that comes with it, but for the spirit of community and camaraderie that such games engendered. Although many still gesture towards the ‘true’ spirit of sport and avow to protect it, there is little consensus on what that spirit may actually be. For some, sport represents the playful expression of the human condition, a feature endemic in all societies. For others, sport is ‘amusement solely’ and its essence is ‘relaxation’, a moment ‘when we dis-port ourselves from labour and our usual daily work’ (Allison 2001: 1), or a ‘challenge’, a quality that is closely associated with ‘courage’ (Reid 1998).Sport can be understood as ‘a physical competition between opponents’, the outcome of which is determined by ‘ability, strategy, and chance’ (Eitzen 2006: 1), or the ‘recreation of the human spirit through the sheer joy of play’ (Wigglesworth 1996: 152). Furthermore, sport is often regarded as reflective of traits that are favoured in society,
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The thwack of leather on willow, the crunch as a body is tackled, the crowd’s roar reverberating around a stadium, the joy, emotion, feeling, wonder-ment, glory of sport. A billion people slavishly follow every kick, goal and red card of a World Cup, passionate supporters take to the streets to cele-brate their national team’s victory, the non-victorious mourn ‘their’ loss until the next opportunity to avenge defeat. Philosophers, poets, fans and academics have each tried to explain the intrinsic appeal of sport, to distil its essence, yet it remains seductively elusive, beyond lyrical and analytical efforts to define its ‘true’ nature. On a base level, sport is no more than a banal physical pastime, where bodies are set against one another to secure territory, take possession or outperform each other, or they compete only against themselves, challenging and conquering nature in the pursuit of increasingly extreme and amazing feats. But none who have known the highs and lows of competition would ever agree that sport is little more than actively passing the time. For many, sport means so much more.Although definitions of the nature of sport remain tantalisingly beyond reach, an extensive set of ideologies circulates in contemporary society that nevertheless professes to explain inherent truths about sport. Young chil-dren are inducted into the concept of fair play, adolescents are encouraged to play not just by the rules but according to the spirit of the game, elite athletes are reminded that they are role models who offer moral guidance to the public, and the Olympic Games marks itself as an avenue for achieving international peace and understanding. Sport is thought to offer a range of lessons that can be transferred to other aspects of a participant’s life. It is supposed to teach social and moral behaviours, to impart a sense of com-mitment, discipline, dedication and sacrifice, and to strengthen character and fortitude in the face of adversity (Verroken 2003; Jenkins 2002; Butcher and Schneider 2001; Reid 1998). These noble characteristics remain largely uncontested outside the hallowed halls of the academy, and certainly in the public eye, attempts to interrogate and expose the ideological foundations of sport are met with scepticism. It is, however, important to acknowledge The nature of sport 15that the physical act of, for example, hitting a ball, tackling a player or riding a wave are not intrinsically meaningful beyond the confines of the game or activity, and any effort to solicit meaning explicitly reveals the ideolo-gical precepts that are inscribed onto sport from without. Yet modern sport has, in essence, come to signify more than mere recreation, and the philo-sophical significance attributed to sport differentiates it from other physical activities.Whilst the idealised version of sport seems to be well entrenched, there are, nevertheless, concerns that the essence of sport is constantly under threat in a world where victory and financial gain seem to be more highly prized than playing fairly for the love of the game. Although commercialism and pro-fessionalism have influenced sport markedly, the influence of various tech-nologies is often held responsible for chipping away at the spirit of sport and undermining its philosophical foundations. These anxieties are provoked by a ‘technophobia’ that values ‘natural’ products more than human-made or artificial exemplars (Barilan and Weintraub 2001), and are reinforced by the mythology of sport as a purely natural enterprise. Physical recreations are imbued with moral and social meanings that derived, in part, from Romantic conceptions of nature and its restorative potential. Furthermore, the Victorian virtues of ‘fair play’ and an emerging scientific belief in the ‘natural’ body as an immutable biological category served to entrench hostilities towards technological interventions, particularly those that sought to enhance ath-letic capacity. For this reason, the ‘unnatural’, scientised or serious pursuit of athletic glory has traditionally sat uncomfortably with those who insist that sport celebrates the ‘natural’ athlete and his or her potential. Incorporating technological remedies into sport, to any degree, is thought to violate this ‘natural’ order and reveal that the ‘true spirit’ of sport is slowly dissipatingin favour of an emphasis on the unabashed pursuit of performance objectives.The ingestion of performance enhancing drugs is regarded as perhaps the clearest evidence that the spirit of sport is at risk, and is passionately label-led a ‘crime’ that ‘undermin[es] the very essence of sport’ (O’Leary 2001: 29). Doping, it is reasoned, disrupts the level playing field upon which sport is predicated and offers ‘unfair’ advantages to those who partake. It is thought to reduce the element of chance and uncertainty that is funda-mental to sport, creating an ‘inevitable’ outcome where the doped compe-titor is assured of victory (Reid 1998). This, in turn, seemingly lessens the value of the contest as an accurate measure of the capacities of individual competitors. Those who take a ‘chemical shortcut’ have their characters and morality questioned, are thought to lack discipline and courage, and are regarded as incapable of respecting ‘natural capacities and limitations’ (Reid 1998). It is apparent that not only the health and well-being of athletes are jeopardised by the presence of illicit performance technologies, but the very moral fibre of sport itself is at risk.Sport is, of course, replete with technological advancements, as evidenced in the booming sports technology industry that designs everything from cutting- 16 The nature of sportedge apparel and equipment through to high tech playing surfaces and improved safety items. Each of these advances are designed, in part, to offer an athletic environment that allows the athlete to perform unimpeded. Yet, the introduction of new technologies is closely monitored to ensure the integrity of sport is protected. Training regimes, improved equipment and nutritional substances, for example, are scrutinised to ensure they do no more than merely facilitate performance by reducing external influences that may obscure or hinder the true capacity of an athlete. In this sense, the compe-titor’s physical ability should be reflected in, and measured by, their final result; however, assessing whether or not technologies inappropriately enhance performance is difficult, and the merits of various innovations are contested by sporting authorities, athletes, coaches and the public at large. The cur-rent controversy that surrounds the athletic application of hypoxic, or alti-tude, chambers attests to the fact that debates about technologies are never straightforward (Levine 2006; Kutt 2005).
To understand why technology is conceived as a threat to the sanctity of sport and its philosophical foundations, this chapter initially examines the ‘spirit’ of sport, locating its origins in nineteenth-century constructions ofMuscular Christianity and amateurism. As a ‘carefree’ and ‘joyous’ expres-sion of humanity, sport was regarded as an antidote to the twin threats of industrialisation and urbanisation, which were thought to jeopardise the health and hygiene of not only individuals but of society at large. Sport, in theory, offered a direct link to the natural realm, away from the confines of the city and the filth in the streets, and was inscribed with many of the Romantic qualities that were attributed to nature, particularly freedom and redemption. Nature, it was supposed, offered not only a site of rejuvenation but possessed an inherent morality that could inspire and instruct human society, and through its close association with this ‘untouched’ realm, sport was consequently imbued with a similar purpose. This chapter thus locates the origins of the ethical and moral precepts that underpin sport within broader constructions of nature as a moral touchstone. Nature represented an uncorrupted site against which the technological advances of human society could be measured, and sport was similarly regarded as part of an authentic realm into which technology could, and should, not intrude. As such, this chapter suggests that the social construction of nature as immu-table and ahistorical has considerable implications for the place and repu-tation of sport in contemporary society and particularly its relationship to technology.

The spirit of sport

In light of increasing commercialisation and professionalisation, sport is still imaged as a natural, carefree activity that offers joy and freedom whilst imparting a sense of morality to its participants. Whilst it may seem endangered by commercial influences, purists are comforted in the nostalgic

The nature of sport 17

memory of various ‘golden ages’ where sport is alleged to have found its true expression, celebrated not for winning and the financial gain that comes with it, but for the spirit of community and camaraderie that such games engendered. Although many still gesture towards the ‘true’ spirit of sport and avow to protect it, there is little consensus on what that spirit may actually be. For some, sport represents the playful expression of the human condition, a feature endemic in all societies. For others, sport is ‘amusement solely’ and its essence is ‘relaxation’, a moment ‘when we dis-port ourselves from labour and our usual daily work’ (Allison 2001: 1), or a ‘challenge’, a quality that is closely associated with ‘courage’ (Reid 1998).Sport can be understood as ‘a physical competition between opponents’, the outcome of which is determined by ‘ability, strategy, and chance’ (Eitzen 2006: 1), or the ‘recreation of the human spirit through the sheer joy of play’ (Wigglesworth 1996: 152). Furthermore, sport is often regarded as reflective of traits that are favoured in society,
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The pukulan keras dari kulit di willow, krisis sebagai tubuh yang ditangani, gemuruh penonton bergema di sekitar stadion, kegembiraan, emosi, perasaan, heran-ment, kemuliaan olahraga. Satu miliar orang merendahkan diri mengikuti setiap tendangan, tujuan dan kartu merah dari Piala Dunia, pendukung gairah turun ke jalan untuk cele-brate kemenangan tim nasional mereka, meratap non-menang kehilangan 'mereka' sampai kesempatan berikutnya untuk membalas kekalahan. Filsuf, penyair, penggemar dan akademisi masing-masing mencoba untuk menjelaskan daya tarik intrinsik olahraga, untuk menyaring esensinya, namun tetap menggoda sulit dipahami, di luar lirik dan analitis e ff orts untuk mendefinisikan yang sifat 'benar'. Pada tingkat dasar, olahraga tidak lebih dari hobi fisik dangkal, di mana tubuh diatur terhadap satu sama lain untuk mengamankan wilayah, menguasai atau mengungguli satu sama lain, atau mereka bersaing hanya terhadap diri mereka sendiri, menantang dan menaklukkan alam dalam mengejar semakin ekstrim dan prestasi luar biasa. Tapi tak satu pun yang telah dikenal tertinggi dan terendah dari persaingan pernah setuju olahraga yang sedikit lebih dari aktif menghabiskan waktu. Bagi banyak orang, olahraga berarti jauh lebih banyak. Meskipun definisi sifat olahraga tetap menggoda di luar jangkauan, serangkaian luas ideologi beredar dalam masyarakat kontemporer yang tetap mengaku untuk menjelaskan kebenaran yang melekat tentang olahraga. Muda chil-anak yang dilantik menjadi konsep fair play, remaja didorong untuk bermain tidak hanya dengan aturan tetapi menurut semangat permainan, atlet elit diingatkan bahwa mereka adalah panutan yang o ff er bimbingan moral kepada masyarakat, dan Olimpiade menandai dirinya sebagai jalan untuk mencapai perdamaian internasional dan pemahaman. Sport diduga o ff er berbagai pelajaran yang dapat ditransfer ke aspek-aspek lain dari kehidupan peserta. Hal ini seharusnya mengajarkan perilaku sosial dan moral, untuk memberikan rasa com-mitment, disiplin, dedikasi dan pengorbanan, dan untuk memperkuat karakter dan ketabahan dalam menghadapi kesulitan (Verroken 2003; Jenkins 2002; Butcher dan Schneider 2001; Reid 1998 ). Karakteristik mulia tetap sebagian besar tidak terbantahkan luar ruang keramat akademi, dan tentu saja di mata publik, upaya untuk menginterogasi dan mengekspos fondasi ideologis olahraga yang ditanggapi dengan skeptis. Namun demikian, penting untuk mengakui Sifat olahraga 15 bahwa tindakan fisik, misalnya, memukul bola, mengatasi pemain atau menunggang gelombang tidak intrinsik berarti melampaui batas-batas dari permainan atau kegiatan, dan e ff ortir ke meminta berarti secara eksplisit mengungkapkan sila ideolo-gical yang ditorehkan ke olahraga dari luar. Namun olahraga modern telah, pada dasarnya, datang untuk menandakan lebih dari rekreasi belaka, dan makna philo-sophical dikaitkan dengan olahraga di ff erentiates dari kegiatan fisik lainnya. Sementara versi ideal dari olahraga tampaknya baik bercokol, ada, bagaimanapun, kekhawatiran bahwa esensi dari olahraga terus-menerus di bawah ancaman di dunia di mana kemenangan dan keuntungan finansial tampaknya akan lebih sangat berharga dari bermain cukup untuk cinta dari permainan. Meskipun komersialisme dan pro-fessionalism telah mempengaruhi olahraga nyata, pengaruh berbagai teknologi-nologies sering bertanggung jawab atas chipping jauh di semangat olahraga dan merusak fondasi filosofis. Kecemasan ini diprovokasi oleh 'technophobia' yang menghargai produk 'alami' lebih dari eksemplar buatan manusia atau buatan (Barilan dan Weintraub 2001), dan diperkuat oleh mitologi olahraga sebagai perusahaan murni alami. Rekreasi fisik dijiwai dengan makna moral dan sosial yang berasal, sebagian, dari konsepsi Romantis alam dan potensi restoratif nya. Selanjutnya, kebajikan Victoria 'fair play' dan keyakinan ilmiah yang muncul di tubuh 'alami' sebagai kategori biologi berubah disajikan untuk berkubu permusuhan terhadap intervensi teknologi, terutama mereka yang berusaha untuk meningkatkan kapasitas ath-Letic. Untuk alasan ini, mengejar 'tidak wajar', scientised atau serius kemuliaan atletik secara tradisional duduk nyaman dengan orang-orang yang bersikeras olahraga yang merayakan atlet 'alami' dan atau potensi dirinya. Memasukkan obat teknologi dalam olahraga, untuk tingkat apapun, diduga melanggar perintah ini 'alami' dan mengungkapkan bahwa 'semangat sejati' olahraga secara perlahan dissipatingin mendukung penekanan pada mengejar tak tahu malu dari tujuan kinerja. The menelan obat meningkatkan kinerja dianggap sebagai mungkin bukti paling jelas bahwa semangat olahraga yang berisiko, dan penuh semangat label-memimpin 'kejahatan' yang 'undermin [es] esensi olahraga' (O'Leary 2001: 29). Doping, itu beralasan, mengganggu tingkat lapangan bermain di mana olahraga didasarkan dan 'tidak adil' keuntungan o ff ers kepada mereka yang mengambil bagian. Hal ini diduga mengurangi unsur kebetulan dan ketidakpastian yang funda-mental untuk olahraga, menciptakan hasil yang 'tak terelakkan' di mana diolah kompetensi-titor terjamin kemenangan (Reid 1998). Hal ini, pada gilirannya, tampaknya mengurangi nilai dari kontes sebagai ukuran yang akurat dari kapasitas pesaing individu. Mereka yang mengambil 'kimia pintas' memiliki karakter dan moralitas dipertanyakan, dianggap kurang disiplin dan keberanian, dan dianggap sebagai tidak mampu menghormati 'kapasitas alam dan keterbatasan' (Reid 1998). Hal ini jelas bahwa tidak hanya kesehatan dan kesejahteraan atlet terancam oleh kehadiran teknologi kinerja terlarang, tapi serat sangat moral olahraga itu sendiri beresiko. Olahraga adalah, tentu saja, penuh dengan kemajuan teknologi, sebagaimana dibuktikan dalam industri teknologi olahraga booming yang mendesain segala sesuatu dari cutting- 16 Sifat olahraga pakaian dan peralatan tepi hingga tinggi teknologi permukaan bermain dan ditingkatkan item keselamatan. Setiap kemajuan ini dirancang, sebagian, untuk o ff er lingkungan atletik yang memungkinkan atlet untuk melakukan tanpa hambatan. Namun, pengenalan teknologi baru erat dimonitor untuk memastikan integritas olahraga dilindungi. Rezim pelatihan, peningkatan peralatan dan zat gizi, misalnya, diteliti untuk memastikan mereka tidak lebih dari sekedar memfasilitasi kinerja dengan mengurangi pengaruh eksternal yang dapat mengaburkan atau menghalangi kapasitas sebenarnya dari seorang atlet. Dalam hal ini, kemampuan fisik kompetensi-titor ini harus tercermin dalam, dan diukur dengan, hasil akhir mereka; Namun, menilai apakah atau tidak teknologi tidak tepat meningkatkan kinerja di FFI kultus, dan manfaat dari berbagai inovasi yang diperebutkan oleh otoritas olahraga, atlet, pelatih dan masyarakat luas. The skr-sewa kontroversi yang mengelilingi penerapan atletik dari hipoksia, atau alti-tude, ruang membuktikan fakta bahwa perdebatan tentang teknologi tidak pernah mudah (Levine 2006; Kütt 2005). Untuk memahami mengapa teknologi dipahami sebagai ancaman terhadap kesucian olahraga dan yayasan filosofisnya, bab ini awalnya meneliti 'roh' dari olahraga, lokasi asal-usul dalam konstruksi abad kesembilan belas ofMuscular Kristen dan amatirisme. Sebagai 'riang' dan 'gembira' expres-sion kemanusiaan, olahraga dianggap sebagai penangkal ancaman kembar industrialisasi dan urbanisasi, yang dianggap membahayakan kesehatan dan kebersihan tidak hanya individu tetapi masyarakat pada umumnya. Olahraga, dalam teori, o ff ered link langsung ke ranah alam, jauh dari batas-batas kota dan kotoran di jalan-jalan, dan bertuliskan banyak kualitas Romantis yang dikaitkan dengan alam, khususnya kebebasan dan penebusan. Alam, itu seharusnya, o ff ered tidak hanya situs peremajaan tetapi memiliki moralitas yang melekat yang bisa menginspirasi dan menginstruksikan masyarakat manusia, dan melalui kerjasama erat dengan ini 'tak tersentuh' alam, olahraga akibatnya dijiwai dengan tujuan yang sama. Bab ini sehingga menempatkan asal-usul ajaran etika dan moral yang mendukung olahraga dalam konstruksi yang lebih luas dari alam sebagai batu ujian moral. Nature diwakili situs uncorrupted dikompensasi dengan kemajuan teknologi dari masyarakat manusia dapat diukur, dan olahraga itu sama dianggap sebagai bagian dari alam otentik mana teknologi bisa, dan harus, tidak mengganggu. Dengan demikian, bab ini menunjukkan bahwa konstruksi sosial alam sebagai Immu-meja dan ahistoris memiliki implikasi yang cukup untuk tempat dan repu-tasi olahraga dalam masyarakat kontemporer dan khususnya hubungannya dengan teknologi. Semangat olahraga Mengingat meningkatnya komersialisasi dan profesionalisasi, olahraga masih dicitrakan sebagai alam, aktivitas riang yang o ff ers sukacita dan kebebasan sementara menanamkan rasa moralitas untuk peserta. Sementara itu mungkin tampak terancam oleh pengaruh komersial, puritan yang menghibur dalam nostalgia Sifat olahraga 17 memori berbagai 'usia emas' di mana olahraga diduga telah menemukan ekspresi yang benar, dirayakan bukan untuk menang dan keuntungan finansial yang datang dengan itu , tapi untuk semangat masyarakat dan persahabatan bahwa permainan seperti dilahirkan. Meskipun banyak gerakan masih menuju semangat 'benar' olahraga dan mengakui untuk melindunginya, ada sedikit konsensus tentang apa roh yang sebenarnya bisa. Untuk beberapa, olahraga merupakan ekspresi lucu dari kondisi manusia, fitur endemik di semua masyarakat. Bagi orang lain, olahraga adalah 'hiburan semata-mata' dan esensinya adalah 'relaksasi', saat 'ketika kita dis-port diri dari tenaga kerja dan pekerjaan kami biasa sehari-hari' (Allison 2001: 1), atau 'tantangan', kualitas yang sangat erat kaitannya dengan 'keberanian' (Reid 1998) .Sport dapat dipahami sebagai 'kompetisi fisik antara lawan', yang hasil akhirnya ditentukan oleh kemampuan, strategi, dan kesempatan '(Eitzen 2006: 1), atau' rekreasi dari jiwa manusia melalui sukacita bermain '(Wigglesworth 1996: 152). Selanjutnya, olahraga sering dianggap sebagai refleksi dari sifat yang disukai di masyarakat,

























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