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Medan model dan dari survei dasar gundukanmenggunakan GPS kinematis dipasang di ATV. UntukLIDAR data, perubahan dalam volume bukit pasir danPantai antara tahun 1997 dan 1998 diukur secara langsungdari profil perubahan (Lihat gambar 5) dan terintegrasialongshore.4. hasil: dune erosi TARIFRata-rata dune erosi dari 1940 hingga 1984 dariMonterey ke Sungai Salinas dihitung sebagainilai referensi sejarah selama waktu yang intensifpenambangan pasir, yang mencakup peristiwa El Niño selamamusim dingin tahun 1957-58 dan 1982-83. Berarti tahunanDune volume kehilangan (volume per satuan panjang dari garis pantai)Diperoleh dengan mengalikan resesi berarti diukurtingkat, R, dengan ketinggian berarti gundukan, H (gumuk tepi atasminus ketinggian kaki) untuk setiap bagian dari pantai (gambar 8).Volume kehilangan paling tergantung pada ketinggian dune.Total volume rata-rata tahunan pasir terkikisdari bukit-bukit pasir di Selatan Monterey Bay selama ini44 tahun diperoleh dengan mengintegrasikan 18 kmalongshore dan diukur 270.000 m3/yr.Adalah Thedunelossduringthe1997-98 El Niñoekstrim erosi acara (gambar 9), karena ini waktuanomalously pasang dan energi tinggi gelombang yang mengakibatkansignifikan erosi. Resesi gundukan besar yang diamatidi Fort Ord dan Marina, serta signifikan resesi diMonterey dan kota pasir. Mulai dari Selatan,resesi di Monterey berkisar dari 0 sampai 4 m. pasir Cityresesi yang berkisar dari 0 untuk 2 m. Fort Ord luka-luka yang mulai0,5 13 m. variasi besar dalam resesi duneterjadi alongshore. Gundukan tahunan rata-rata historis8 GB. Tahunan lokasi recessionRwith tepi atas berarti gundukan pasirpertambangan operasi ditandakan oleh (⁎) (atas panel), dune ketinggian H (toppanel tengah), volume kehilangan dune per satuan jarak V (bawah tengahpanel), dan tahunan berarti gelombang energi (panel bawah) versus jarakalongshore di Selatan Monterey Bay.Gambar 9. Alongshore variasi dalam volume kerugian di Selatan Monterey Baydune (garis solid) dan pantai (garis putus-putus) diukur dengan menggunakan LIDARselama tahun 1997-98 El Niño musim dingin dibandingkan dengan rata-rata tahunanSejarah dune volume kehilangan (1940-84) diukur dengan menggunakan stereophotogrammetry (garis putus-putus). Revetments atau seawalls (100-200 mpanjang) dilambangkan oleh (⁎).Gambar 7. Berarti resesi dari tepi atas dune sepanjang bagian-bagian yang dipilih dariPantai (alongshore lokasi di km dari Monterey Wharf #2, lihat jugaTabel 1). Tingkat resesi berarti dihitung sebagai lereng linearregresi baris.52 EB Thornton et al. laut geologi 229 (2006) 45 – 58volume kerugian bagi 1940 – 1984 ditampilkan untuk perbandingan dalamGambar 9. Volume kehilangan juga dibagi menjadi permanenerosi Gumuk dan musiman pantai perubahan untukProfil LIDAR yang diturunkan. Perubahan musiman beachdidefinisikan sebagai perbedaan profil yang terjadi antaraShoreline di tingkat air rendah berarti rendah dan ujungdune. Total volume kerugian selama tahun 1997-98winter was 2,593,000 m3, obtained by integrating theerosion alongshore, of which 1,820,000 m3is dune lossand 773,000 m3is beach loss. The dune volume lossduring this El Niño winter was almost seven times thehistorical average annual rate. This emphasizes thaterosion can be highly episodic in time, which is notobvious in the regression plots ofFig. 7.The beach loss of 773,000 m3is about 40% of thedune loss. The eroded beach sand goes offshore in thewinter, building the bar. Sand is moved onshore by thesummer swell waves, but there is some permanent lossto the offshore.5. Discussion: Dune erosion mechanicsDune erosion is episodic and only occurs when stormwaves coincide with high tides to allow the swash toreach and undercut the base of the sand dune. Swash isdependent on wave height (energy) and period andbeach slope. The beach slope in turn is dependent onsand grain size and wave energy. It is assumed that longterm wave statistics are steady-state and that sand grainsize does not change locally. Mean sea level rise (timescale of centuries) is assumed constant, and that it causesa constant contribution to the rate of dune erosion. It isfurther assumed that the beaches are in dynamicequilibrium over time owing to a constant supply ofsand to the littoral system. This assumption is supportedby the observation that the beach widths in southernMonterey Bay appear to be in a long-term (1930–2001)mapan (Reid, 2004). Oleh karena itu, ini adalah hipotesisyang setiap variasi temporal jangka panjang dalam resesi duneTARIF dikaitkan dengan perubahan dalam jumlah pasirditambang dari zona surfing.Dune erosi bervariasi alongshore. Mekanisme yangmungkin menjelaskan variabilitas spasial jangka panjang duneresesi termasuk alongshore variasi dalam energi gelombang,limpasan curah hujan, Pantai lereng, lebar dan kaki elevasi,dan variasi dalam jumlah pasir yang ditambang. Iniberbagai mekanisme dibahas berikutnya.5.1. gelombang, pasang dan El Niño acaraEnergi gelombang bervariasi spasial atas kilometer Timbanganpergi dari gelombang-gelombang kecil di bagian SelatanTeluk dalam bayangan Headland gelombang besar ditengah selatan Teluk, mana konvergensi gelombangkarena refraksi atas Monterey Bay SubmarineCanyon hasil di ketinggian gelombang meningkat. Gelombangpembiasan melintasi ngarai menyebabkan fokus dandefocusing energi gelombang, tergantung pada gelombangarah dan periode. Variabilitas spasial ditelitioleh menghitung energi gelombang di 10 lokasi di SelatanMonterey Bay (Oradiwe, 1986). Perhitungan yangBerdasarkan arah spektrum dihitung menggunakan gelombangInformasi studi (WIS) (Resio, 1981) untuk dua puluhtahun 1956-1975 dan US Navy spektralGelombang laut Model (SWOM) untuk delapan belas tahunperiode 1964-1981. Kedua model digunakan ladang angindihasilkan untuk belahan bumi utara oleh ASAngkatan Laut di armada numerik Meteorologi dan Oseanografi pusat untuk menghitung arah gelombang bidang. Iniprecludes swell waves from the Southern Hemisphere,which is a reasonable approach since southern MontereyBay is protected from waves from the south by the PointPinos headland (Fig. 1). The directional spectra forevery 6 h at a location in deep water outside MontereyBay were then refracted to shore locations within thebay using linear refraction at one-degree incrementsover all incident angles of approach. Energy wascalculated by integrating the individual directionalwave spectra over the sea-swell band (0.05–0.3 Hzand directions), and then averaging over 25 years.1Severe refraction occurs as the predominant wavesfrom the northwest pass over the Monterey SubmarineCanyon, resulting in focusing of wave energy at Marinaand Fort Ord and defocusing of energy at Monterey andMoss Landing. The shorelines of Monterey and SandCity are sheltered by Point Piños for waves from thesouth and west quadrants and receive a reduced amountof wave energy. The net result is a large alongshoreenergy gradient, with small waves at Montereyincreasing to large waves at Fort Ord and Marina (Fig.8, lower panel). The dune recession (Fig. 8, top panel)has an alongshore distribution similar to the mean waveenergy. This suggests that a primary reason foralongshore variability of erosion is due to the gradientof wave energy.Wave energy also varies in time. Wave energy anderosion are typically greater during El Niño winters. AnEl Niño winter occurred at the onset of the study in1940–41 followed by events in 1957–58, 1982–83, and1Although this is a limited 25-year data set (not previouslypublished, but available) based on using a second generation wavemodel, the purpose of this analysis is to demonstrate the alongshoregradient of the annual mean energy and not the actual magnitudes.53 E.B. Thornton et al. / Marine Geology 229 (2006) 45–581997–98. El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) ischaracterized by weak easterly trade winds, anomalously high sea surface temperatures, high sea levelelevations, large rainfall, and large waves along thecentral California coast (Storlazzi and Griggs, 1998).The incident wave directions were more westerly during1982–83 and 1997–98 El Niños, which is significantbecause the shoreline in the middle of the bay is morevulnerable to waves from the west owing to refractioneffects.The potential for erosion increases with increasedwater level. Mean sea levels tend to be anomalouslyhigh during El Niños, a phenomenon that is attributed toa wave of warm water propagating northward along thecoast (Flick, 1998). The warm water is piled against thecoast to balance the colder, denser water offshore. Thesea level records at Monterey only date back to 1973,but San Francisco sea level records started in 1853.Comparing monthly averaged mean sea level from 1973to 2003 between Monterey and San Francisco, aregression slope of 0.8 is obtained with a correlation
coefficient of 0.9. Therefore, the San Francisco record is
used to infer sea level at Monterey with a reduced
elevation of 0.8. The dune recession at south Fort Ord is
compared with temporal changes in MSL (Fig. 10). The
inferred monthly averaged MSL record shows large
variations coincident with El Niño events. Increased
erosion coincides with El Niño events, during which
time the MSL is anomalously high with increased storm
waves.
Beach profiles at 11 locations within Monterey Bay
were measured byDingler and Reiss (2001)starting in
1983 just after an El Niño winter and ending in 1998 just
after another El Niño winter. They found that during El
Niños waves cut back the beach that allowed the swash
to attack the dune. The dune retreat at Fort Ord was 21 m
between February 1983 and March 1998. Of that retreat,
8 m occurred between February and April 1983 and 9 m
over the 1997–98 winter, both during El Niños, and
only 4 m during the intervening 14 years. They found
that the beach widths required about 2 years to recover
from severe erosion after the 1982–83 El Niño. The
erosion was greater during the 1982–83 El Niño
because storm durations were greater and they occurred
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