Definion of Course DesignCourse des

Definion of Course Design
Course design is the process by which the raw data about the learning need is interpreted in order to produce an integrated series of teaching-learning experiences, whose ultimate aim is to lead the learners to a particular state of knowledge. whose ultimate aim is to lead the learners to a particular state of knowledge. In practical terms this entails the use of the theoretical and empirical information available to produce a syllabus, to select, adapt or write materials in accordance with the syllabus, to develop a methodology for teaching those materials and to establish evaluation procedures by which progress towards the specified goals will be measured.
There are any three main types of course design:
1. Language-centred course design
This is the simplest kind of course design and is probably the one most familiar to English teacher. It is particularly prevalent in ESP. The language - centred course design process aims to draw as direct a connection as possible between the analysis of the target situation and the content of the ESP course.
At the first sight, this may seem to be a very logical procedure. It starts with the learner, procedus through various stages of analysis to a syllabus, thence to materials in use in the classroom and finally to evaluation of mastery of the syllabus items. However, logical and straightforward as it may seem, it has a number of weaknesses:
a) It starts from the learners and their needs, and thus it might be centred in any meaningful sense of the term. The learner is used solely as a way of locating the restricted are. Thereafter the learner plays no further part in the process. As we have seen, however, when considering needs analysis, the learner should be considered at every stage of the process.
b) The language – centred process can also be criticized for being a static and inflexible procedure, which can take little account of the conflicts and contradictions that are inherent in any human endeavor. Once the initial analysis of the target situation is done, the course designer is looked into a relentless process. And unfortunately we have to admit that we do not know enough about how the mind actually goes about creating its internal system of knowledge.
c) One of the alluring features of this model is that it appears to be systematic. But in so doing engenders the false belief learning itself is systematic- that the systematic analysis and presentation of language data will produce systematic learning in the learner. But the most important point here is that it must be an internally – generated system not an externally imposed system. The fact that knowledge has been systematically analysed and systematically presented does not in any way imply has it will be systematically learnt. Learners have to make the system meaningful to themselves.
d) The language-centred model gives no acknowledgement to factors which must inevitably play a part in the creation of any course. Data such as that produced by a needs analysis, its not important in itself. Data must be interpreted, and in interpreting we make use of all sorts of knowledge that are not revealed in the analysis itself. What is actually happening in the language – centred approach is that an analytical model is also being used inapporopriately as a predictive model. If materials are based on the language-centred model, then either there are other factors being used, which are not acknowledge in the model, or and sadly this is what seems so often to be important at all. As a teacher once remarked at a seminar on materials writing, ‘ it doesn’t matter if it’s boring. It’s ESP.’
e) The language – centred analysis of target situation data is only at the surface level. It reveals very little about the competence that underlies the performance.

2. Skills-centered course design
The skills-centred approach to ESP has been widely applied in a number of countries, particularly in Latin America. Students in universities and colleges there have the limited, but important need to read subject texts in English, because they are unavailable in the mother tongue. The skills-centered approach is founded on two fundamental principles, one theoretical, the other pragmatic :
a. The basic theoretical hypothesis is that underlying any language behavior are certain skills and strategies, which the learner uses in order to produce or comprehend discourse. A skills-centred approach aims to get away from the surface performance data and look at the competence that underlines the performance (see I (e) above). A skills – centred course will present its learning objectives in term of both performance and competence.
b. The pragmatic basis for the skills-centred approach derives from a distinction made by Widdowson (1982) between goal-oriented courses and process-oriented courses. Holmes (1982) points out that in ESP the main problem is usually one of time available and student experience. First, the aims may be defined in terms of what is desirable, - i.e. to be able to read in the literature of the students’ specialism, but there may be nowhere near enough time to reach this aim during the period of the course. Secondly, the students may be in their first year of studies with little experience of the literature of their specialism.
The process-oriented approach tries to avoid this problem by removing the distinction between the ESP course and the target situation. The emphasis in the ESP course, is not on achieving a particular set of goals, but on enabling the learners to achieving what they can within the given constraints.
The role of needs analysis in a skills-centred approach is twofold. Firstly, it provides a basis for discovering the underlying competence that enables people to perform in the target situation. Secondly, it enables the course designer to discover the potential knowledge and abilities that the learners bring to the ESP classroom.
The skills-centred approach, can certainly claim to take the learner more into account than the language-centredapproach :
a. In views language in terms of how the mind of the learner processes it rather than as an entity in itself.
b. It tries to build on the positive factors that the learners bring to the course, rather than just on the negative idea of ‘lack’.
c. It frames its objectives in open-ended terms, so enabling learners to achievement at least something.
The skills-centred approach still approaches the learner as a user of language rather than as a learner of language. The processes it is concerned with are the processes of language use not of language learning. It is with this distinction in mind that we turn to the third approach to course design.
3. A Learning-centred approach
The learner-centred approach is based on the principle that learning is totally determined by the laearner. As teachers we can influence what we teach, but what the learners learn is determined by the learners alone. Learning is seen as a process in which the learners use what knowledge or skills they have in order to make sense of the flow of new information.
Learning, therefore, is an internal process, which is crucially dependent upon the knowledge the learners already have and their ability and motivation to use it. It is difficult to fault this view of learning, if we see learning simply in terms of the end product in the learner’s mind. But learning can, and should, be seen in the context in which it takes place.
Learning is not just a mental process, it is a process, it is a process of negotiation between individuals and society. Society sets the target (in the case of ESP, performance in the target situation) and the individuals must do their best to get as close to that target as is possible (or reject it). The learners will certainly determine their own route to the target and the the speed at which they travel the route, but that does not make the target unimportant. The target still has a determining influence on the possible routes. In the learning process, then, there is more than just the learner to consider. For this reason we would reject the term a learner-centred approach in favour of a learning-centred approach to indicate that the concern is to maximise learning. The learner is one factor to consider in the learning process, but not the only one. Thus the term learner-centred would for our purpose be misleading.
To return to our discussion of approaches to course design, we can see that for all its emphasis on the learner, the skill-centred approach does not fully take the learner into account, because it still makes the ESP learning situation too dependent on the target situation. The learner is used to identify and to analyse the target situation. The learner is used to identify and to analyse the target situation needs. But then, as with the language-centred approach, the learner is discarded and the target situation analysis is allowed to determine the content of the course with little further reference to the learner.
A language-centred approach say this is the nature of the target situation performance and that will determine the ESP course. A skills-centred approach says: That’s not enough. We must look behind the target performance data to discover what processes enable someone to perform. Those processes will determine the ESP course.
A learning-centred approach says thet’s not enough either. We must look beyond the competence that enables someone to perform, because what we really want to discover is not the competence itself, but how someone acquires that competence. This has two implications:
a. Course design is a negotiated process. There is no single factor which has an outright determining influence on the content of the course. The ESP learning situation and the target situation will both influence the nature of the syllabus, materials, methodology and evaluation procedures. Similarly each of these components will in

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1:

Definion Desain LapanganDesain Lapangan adalah proses yang merupakan data mentah tentang perlunya belajar ditafsirkan untuk menghasilkan serangkaian pengalaman belajar-mengajar, yang tujuan utama adalah untuk memimpin para peserta didik untuk keadaan tertentu pengetahuan yang terintegrasi. Tujuan utama yang akan mengakibatkan keadaan tertentu pengetahuan peserta didik. Dalam praktik ini melibatkan penggunaan informasi teoritik dan empirik yang tersedia untuk menghasilkan silabus, untuk memilih, mengadaptasi atau menulis bahan silabus, mengembangkan metodologi untuk mengajar bahan-bahan tersebut dan untuk menetapkan tatacara evaluasi yang kemajuan menuju tujuan tertentu akan diukur.Ada tiga jenis utama setiap tentu desain:1. bahasa-berpusat Kursus DesainIni adalah jenis yang paling sederhana dari desain lapangan dan mungkin yang paling akrab bagi guru bahasa Inggris. Ini terutama lazim dalam ESP. Bahasa - berpusat Kursus Desain proses bertujuan untuk menarik seperti langsung koneksi mungkin antara analisis situasi target dan isi dari kursus ESP.Pada pandangan pertama, ini mungkin tampaknya menjadi sebuah prosedur yang sangat logis. Dimulai dengan pelajar, procedus melalui berbagai tahap analisis untuk silabus, dari situ ke materi dalam penggunaan di dalam kelas dan akhirnya untuk evaluasi penguasaan silabus item. Namun, logis dan mudah karena mungkin tampak, ia memiliki beberapa kelemahan:) dimulai dari peserta didik dan kebutuhan mereka, dan dengan demikian mungkin berpusat di rasa bermakna istilah. Pelajar digunakan semata-mata sebagai cara untuk menemukan yang terbatas. Kemudian pelajar memainkan tidak berperan lagi dalam proses. Seperti yang kita lihat, namun, ketika mempertimbangkan analisis kebutuhan, pelajar harus dipertimbangkan pada setiap tahap proses. b) bahasa-berpusat proses dapat juga dikritik karena prosedur statis dan tidak fleksibel, yang dapat mempertimbangkan sedikit konflik dan kontradiksi yang melekat dalam setiap usaha manusia. Setelah analisis awal situasi target selesai, Desain Lapangan adalah melihat ke dalam proses yang tanpa henti. Dan sayangnya kita harus mengakui bahwa kita tidak tahu cukup tentang bagaimana pikiran benar-benar pergi tentang menciptakan sistem internal pengetahuan. c) salah satu fitur yang memikat dari model ini adalah bahwa tampaknya menjadi sistematis. Tetapi dalam sehingga menimbulkan melakukan keyakinan palsu pembelajaran itu sendiri sistematis-bahwa analisis sistematis dan penyajian data bahasa akan menghasilkan sistematis belajar di pelajar. Tapi yang paling penting di sini adalah bahwa hal itu harus dihasilkan internal-sistem tidak dikenakan eksternal sistem. Fakta bahwa pengetahuan telah secara sistematis dianalisis dan sistematis disajikan Apakah tidak dengan cara apapun berarti memiliki akan dipelajari secara sistematis. Pelajar harus membuat sistem bermakna untuk diri mereka sendiri.d) model berpusat bahasa memberikan pengakuan tidak ada faktor yang mau tidak mau harus memainkan peran dalam penciptaan lapangan apapun. Data seperti yang dihasilkan oleh analisis kebutuhan, yang tidak penting dalam dirinya sendiri. Data harus ditafsirkan, dan dalam menafsirkan kami membuat menggunakan segala macam pengetahuan yang tidak diungkapkan dalam analisis itu sendiri. Apa yang sebenarnya terjadi dalam bahasa – pendekatan yang berpusat adalah bahwa model analitis juga sedang digunakan inapporopriately sebagai model prediktif. Jika bahan didasarkan pada bahasa yang berpusat pada model, maka baik ada faktor lain yang digunakan, yang tidak mengakui dalam model, atau dan sayangnya hal ini begitu sering yang tampaknya menjadi penting sama sekali. Sebagai seorang guru pernah mengatakan pada seminar pada bahan-bahan yang menulis, ' tidak peduli jika itu membosankan. It's ESP.'e) bahasa-berpusat analisis data situasi sasaran adalah hanya di tingkat permukaan. Ini menunjukkan sedikit tentang kompetensi yang mendasari kinerja. 2. Desain Lapangan keterampilan-berpusat Pendekatan yang berpusat pada kemampuan untuk ESP telah secara luas diterapkan di sejumlah negara, terutama di Amerika Latin. Mahasiswa di Universitas dan perguruan tinggi tidak memiliki kebutuhan terbatas, tapi penting membaca subjek teks dalam bahasa Inggris, karena mereka tidak tersedia dalam bahasa ibu. Pendekatan yang berpusat pada kemampuan didasarkan pada dua prinsip mendasar, satu teoritis, pragmatis lainnya:a. The basic theoretical hypothesis is that underlying any language behavior are certain skills and strategies, which the learner uses in order to produce or comprehend discourse. A skills-centred approach aims to get away from the surface performance data and look at the competence that underlines the performance (see I (e) above). A skills – centred course will present its learning objectives in term of both performance and competence.b. The pragmatic basis for the skills-centred approach derives from a distinction made by Widdowson (1982) between goal-oriented courses and process-oriented courses. Holmes (1982) points out that in ESP the main problem is usually one of time available and student experience. First, the aims may be defined in terms of what is desirable, - i.e. to be able to read in the literature of the students’ specialism, but there may be nowhere near enough time to reach this aim during the period of the course. Secondly, the students may be in their first year of studies with little experience of the literature of their specialism.The process-oriented approach tries to avoid this problem by removing the distinction between the ESP course and the target situation. The emphasis in the ESP course, is not on achieving a particular set of goals, but on enabling the learners to achieving what they can within the given constraints.The role of needs analysis in a skills-centred approach is twofold. Firstly, it provides a basis for discovering the underlying competence that enables people to perform in the target situation. Secondly, it enables the course designer to discover the potential knowledge and abilities that the learners bring to the ESP classroom.The skills-centred approach, can certainly claim to take the learner more into account than the language-centredapproach :a. In views language in terms of how the mind of the learner processes it rather than as an entity in itself.b. It tries to build on the positive factors that the learners bring to the course, rather than just on the negative idea of ‘lack’. c. It frames its objectives in open-ended terms, so enabling learners to achievement at least something.The skills-centred approach still approaches the learner as a user of language rather than as a learner of language. The processes it is concerned with are the processes of language use not of language learning. It is with this distinction in mind that we turn to the third approach to course design.3. A Learning-centred approachThe learner-centred approach is based on the principle that learning is totally determined by the laearner. As teachers we can influence what we teach, but what the learners learn is determined by the learners alone. Learning is seen as a process in which the learners use what knowledge or skills they have in order to make sense of the flow of new information. Learning, therefore, is an internal process, which is crucially dependent upon the knowledge the learners already have and their ability and motivation to use it. It is difficult to fault this view of learning, if we see learning simply in terms of the end product in the learner’s mind. But learning can, and should, be seen in the context in which it takes place.Learning is not just a mental process, it is a process, it is a process of negotiation between individuals and society. Society sets the target (in the case of ESP, performance in the target situation) and the individuals must do their best to get as close to that target as is possible (or reject it). The learners will certainly determine their own route to the target and the the speed at which they travel the route, but that does not make the target unimportant. The target still has a determining influence on the possible routes. In the learning process, then, there is more than just the learner to consider. For this reason we would reject the term a learner-centred approach in favour of a learning-centred approach to indicate that the concern is to maximise learning. The learner is one factor to consider in the learning process, but not the only one. Thus the term learner-centred would for our purpose be misleading.To return to our discussion of approaches to course design, we can see that for all its emphasis on the learner, the skill-centred approach does not fully take the learner into account, because it still makes the ESP learning situation too dependent on the target situation. The learner is used to identify and to analyse the target situation. The learner is used to identify and to analyse the target situation needs. But then, as with the language-centred approach, the learner is discarded and the target situation analysis is allowed to determine the content of the course with little further reference to the learner.A language-centred approach say this is the nature of the target situation performance and that will determine the ESP course. A skills-centred approach says: That’s not enough. We must look behind the target performance data to discover what processes enable someone to perform. Those processes will determine the ESP course.A learning-centred approach says thet’s not enough either. We must look beyond the competence that enables someone to perform, because what we really want to discover is not the competence itself, but how someone acquires that competence. This has two implications:a. Course design is a negotiated process. There is no single factor which has an outright determining influence on the content of the course. The ESP learning situation and the target situation will both influence the nature of the syllabus, materials, methodology and evaluation procedures. Similarly each of these components will in