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Desire for Control and Conformity t
Desire for Control and Conformity to a Perceived Norm
Jerry M. Burger Santa Clara University
The role of individual differences in the general desire for control in conformity situations was exam- ined in three experiments. In Experiment 1, undergraduates low in desire for control were more likely to agree with a persuasive message when survey results were cited indicating public support for the advocated view. Subjects high in desire for control, however, were less persuaded by this message than when the survey information was not included. In Experiment 2, subjects gave humor ratings for cartoons in an Asch conformity paradigm. Subjects with low desire for control were more likely to agree with confederate ratings than were those with high desire for control. Experiment 3 results replicated this effect and ruled out the mere presence of others as an alternate interpretation of it. The findings from all three experiments are interpreted as a demonstration of the motivational component of the desire-for-control construct.
It has been widely assumed that, other things being equal, people generally prefer to be in control of the events in their lives. Several theorists (deCharms, 1968; Deci, 1975: White, 1959) have described a motivation to see oneself as masterful and competent that is satisfied by effectively controlling impor- tant aspects of one's environment. White (1959) has identified this motivation for control as effectance or competence moti- vation. A series of recent investigations has also demonstrated that there are significant individual differences in the extent to which people generally prefer to have control over the events in their lives. Burger and Cooper (1979) introduced a scale to measure the concept desiref or control. They proposed that rela- tively stable individual differences in a general motivation to be in control can be identified and that these differences can ac- count for a significant percentage of variance in behaviors theo- retically related to a motive to control events and thereby feel masterful and competent. Research on desire for control has produced considerable va- lidity for this construct. For example, as compared with people who score low on measures of desire for control, high scorers have been found more susceptible to learned helplessness and depression (Burger. 1984; Burger & Arkin, 1980), more likely to succumb to the illusion of control in a gambling-type situation (Burger, 1986; Burger & Smith, 1985), more likely to exhibit Type A speech and behavior patterns (Dembroski, MacDou- gall, & Musante, 1984; Musante, MacDougall, Dembroski, & Van Horn, 1983), more likely to succeed at achievement tasks (Burger, 1985), and more susceptible to the perception of crowding (Burger, Oakman, & Bullard, 1983). In general, the effects of individual differences in desire for control can be placed into three categories. First, there are the perceptual differences that follow from differences in the per-
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jerry M. Burger, Department of Psychology, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, California 95053.
son's need to see himself or herself in control. As demonstrated in the research on desire for control and gambling, people with high desire for control are more likely than those with low desire for control to distort their perceptions so as to see themselves as having more control over the situation than objective judgment would merit. Second, there are motivational features of desire- for-control differences. Research tying desire for control with achievement, for example, demonstrates that people high in the desire for control are more motivated than those low in this trait to do something that will maintain a sense of personal control or that will overcome challenges to their perception of personal control. Finally, there is the affective component to this individ- ual difference. Research on learned helplessness, for example, demonstrates that people high in the desire for control are more likely than their counterparts to have a strong affective response, in this case depressive affect, when faced with a perceived inabil- ity to control important events. This series of studies was designed to explore another area in which individual differences in desire for control theoretically should play a role—namely, conformity behavior. Research and theory on conformity and, more generally, social influence has been a central par! of social psychology for several decades (see Nemeth, 1986, and Tanford & Penrod, 1984, for recent state- ments on this research). The basic paradigm for a branch of this research is provided by Asch's (1951) classic research on conformity to group norms. In that research, subjects were asked to perform a visual discrimination task in the presence of several confederates posing as other subjects. The confederates, who always gave their responses first, selected an incorrect an- swer from among the response options in a line-matching task. The real subjects, who invariably made the correct response when answering without these confederates present, often re- acted to the confederate responses by agreeing with the other- wise obviously incorrect judgments about the length of the line. My hypothesis is thai people who typically have a high desire to control the events in their lives are less likely to conform to the group norm in this type of situation than are those who are low in the desire for control. This follows from the description
355
356 JERRY M. BURGER
of the motivational components of this individual difference. Because people high in the desire for control prefer to see them- selves in control of events, they are more likely than their coun- terparts to interpret the conformity norm information as a threat to their perceived freedom to choose their own j udgments independently. This then generates a resistance to the perceived pressure, which causes the person high in desire for control to reduce intentionally the impact of this information when form- ing his or her judgment. In this way, the person high in desire for control is able lo maintain the perception that he or she independently arrived at the final judgment. On the other hand, those low in desire for control are less likely to interpret norm information as a threat and are not as motivated to maintain a feeling of independence of judgment. In addition, those with low desire for control may prefer to go along with the norm and thereby avoid the problems encountered when taking a minor- ity stand. In the only relevant investigation on this point to date, Burger and Vartabedian (1980) found that subjects high in the desire for control, compared with those low in the trait, were less likely to be persuaded by a speech when they were initially in disagree- ment with the speaker's position. The researchers argued that these subjects were more resistant to persuasion because alter- ing their attitudes after being presented with the speech would have caused them to feel less in control of what they believed than they preferred. I used the Asch conformity paradigm in this set of studies in two ways. Subjects in the first experiment were given informa- tion as part of a persuasive message that indicated that public opinion was largely in agreement with the writer. Thus, instead of hearing confederates give responses to stimuli, data from a public opinion survey served to communicate the norm to which the subjects might conform. In the second and third ex- periments, a situation more similar to the Asch studies was used. Confederates gave their judgments to stimuli in the pres- ence of a naive subject. However, instead of asking subjects to judge line length, subjects were asked to evaluate the level of humor in a series of cartoons. This was done for two reasons. First, the widespread coverage of Asch's work in high school and introductory college psychology courses created the possibility that many of the undergraduate subjects used in this research would have familiarity with the paradigm. Second, other re- searchers using the humor judgment task (e.g., Bern, 1975) found that these judgments were fairly susceptible to confor- mity pressures from confederates. I predicted that in both of these situations, subjects high in desire for control would be less likely to agree with the majority or confederate opinions than would those low in desire for con- trol. The findings from these studies thus have the potential to add to the understanding of how the motivational aspects of the desire-for-control concept relate to attitudes and behavior. In addition, some practical implications for considering the role of motivation for personal control in a social influence situation are suggested.
Experiment 1
One way that information about normative points of view is transmitted today is through the use of public opinion surveys.
Those advocating a particular viewpoint often cite widespread public support for their position by providing data from these surveys. As in the Asch studies, the audience members for these appeals may allow the information about the judgments of oth- ers to influence their own attitudes on the particular issue. In Experiment 1, undergraduates were presented with an editorial that either contained this type of survey information or did not. I predicted that subjects would be more persuaded when led to believe that the vast majority of college students surveyed agreed with the writer. However, because people high in the de- sire for control are more likely than those low in the trait to resist the impression that they are being influenced by others, these subjects were expected to be persuaded by the survey data less than were the subjects low in desire for control.
Method
Subjects. Seventy-one male and female undergraduates served as sub- jects in exchange for class credit. .411 had taken a large test battery ap- proximately
Jerry M. Burger Santa Clara University
The role of individual differences in the general desire for control in conformity situations was exam- ined in three experiments. In Experiment 1, undergraduates low in desire for control were more likely to agree with a persuasive message when survey results were cited indicating public support for the advocated view. Subjects high in desire for control, however, were less persuaded by this message than when the survey information was not included. In Experiment 2, subjects gave humor ratings for cartoons in an Asch conformity paradigm. Subjects with low desire for control were more likely to agree with confederate ratings than were those with high desire for control. Experiment 3 results replicated this effect and ruled out the mere presence of others as an alternate interpretation of it. The findings from all three experiments are interpreted as a demonstration of the motivational component of the desire-for-control construct.
It has been widely assumed that, other things being equal, people generally prefer to be in control of the events in their lives. Several theorists (deCharms, 1968; Deci, 1975: White, 1959) have described a motivation to see oneself as masterful and competent that is satisfied by effectively controlling impor- tant aspects of one's environment. White (1959) has identified this motivation for control as effectance or competence moti- vation. A series of recent investigations has also demonstrated that there are significant individual differences in the extent to which people generally prefer to have control over the events in their lives. Burger and Cooper (1979) introduced a scale to measure the concept desiref or control. They proposed that rela- tively stable individual differences in a general motivation to be in control can be identified and that these differences can ac- count for a significant percentage of variance in behaviors theo- retically related to a motive to control events and thereby feel masterful and competent. Research on desire for control has produced considerable va- lidity for this construct. For example, as compared with people who score low on measures of desire for control, high scorers have been found more susceptible to learned helplessness and depression (Burger. 1984; Burger & Arkin, 1980), more likely to succumb to the illusion of control in a gambling-type situation (Burger, 1986; Burger & Smith, 1985), more likely to exhibit Type A speech and behavior patterns (Dembroski, MacDou- gall, & Musante, 1984; Musante, MacDougall, Dembroski, & Van Horn, 1983), more likely to succeed at achievement tasks (Burger, 1985), and more susceptible to the perception of crowding (Burger, Oakman, & Bullard, 1983). In general, the effects of individual differences in desire for control can be placed into three categories. First, there are the perceptual differences that follow from differences in the per-
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jerry M. Burger, Department of Psychology, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, California 95053.
son's need to see himself or herself in control. As demonstrated in the research on desire for control and gambling, people with high desire for control are more likely than those with low desire for control to distort their perceptions so as to see themselves as having more control over the situation than objective judgment would merit. Second, there are motivational features of desire- for-control differences. Research tying desire for control with achievement, for example, demonstrates that people high in the desire for control are more motivated than those low in this trait to do something that will maintain a sense of personal control or that will overcome challenges to their perception of personal control. Finally, there is the affective component to this individ- ual difference. Research on learned helplessness, for example, demonstrates that people high in the desire for control are more likely than their counterparts to have a strong affective response, in this case depressive affect, when faced with a perceived inabil- ity to control important events. This series of studies was designed to explore another area in which individual differences in desire for control theoretically should play a role—namely, conformity behavior. Research and theory on conformity and, more generally, social influence has been a central par! of social psychology for several decades (see Nemeth, 1986, and Tanford & Penrod, 1984, for recent state- ments on this research). The basic paradigm for a branch of this research is provided by Asch's (1951) classic research on conformity to group norms. In that research, subjects were asked to perform a visual discrimination task in the presence of several confederates posing as other subjects. The confederates, who always gave their responses first, selected an incorrect an- swer from among the response options in a line-matching task. The real subjects, who invariably made the correct response when answering without these confederates present, often re- acted to the confederate responses by agreeing with the other- wise obviously incorrect judgments about the length of the line. My hypothesis is thai people who typically have a high desire to control the events in their lives are less likely to conform to the group norm in this type of situation than are those who are low in the desire for control. This follows from the description
355
356 JERRY M. BURGER
of the motivational components of this individual difference. Because people high in the desire for control prefer to see them- selves in control of events, they are more likely than their coun- terparts to interpret the conformity norm information as a threat to their perceived freedom to choose their own j udgments independently. This then generates a resistance to the perceived pressure, which causes the person high in desire for control to reduce intentionally the impact of this information when form- ing his or her judgment. In this way, the person high in desire for control is able lo maintain the perception that he or she independently arrived at the final judgment. On the other hand, those low in desire for control are less likely to interpret norm information as a threat and are not as motivated to maintain a feeling of independence of judgment. In addition, those with low desire for control may prefer to go along with the norm and thereby avoid the problems encountered when taking a minor- ity stand. In the only relevant investigation on this point to date, Burger and Vartabedian (1980) found that subjects high in the desire for control, compared with those low in the trait, were less likely to be persuaded by a speech when they were initially in disagree- ment with the speaker's position. The researchers argued that these subjects were more resistant to persuasion because alter- ing their attitudes after being presented with the speech would have caused them to feel less in control of what they believed than they preferred. I used the Asch conformity paradigm in this set of studies in two ways. Subjects in the first experiment were given informa- tion as part of a persuasive message that indicated that public opinion was largely in agreement with the writer. Thus, instead of hearing confederates give responses to stimuli, data from a public opinion survey served to communicate the norm to which the subjects might conform. In the second and third ex- periments, a situation more similar to the Asch studies was used. Confederates gave their judgments to stimuli in the pres- ence of a naive subject. However, instead of asking subjects to judge line length, subjects were asked to evaluate the level of humor in a series of cartoons. This was done for two reasons. First, the widespread coverage of Asch's work in high school and introductory college psychology courses created the possibility that many of the undergraduate subjects used in this research would have familiarity with the paradigm. Second, other re- searchers using the humor judgment task (e.g., Bern, 1975) found that these judgments were fairly susceptible to confor- mity pressures from confederates. I predicted that in both of these situations, subjects high in desire for control would be less likely to agree with the majority or confederate opinions than would those low in desire for con- trol. The findings from these studies thus have the potential to add to the understanding of how the motivational aspects of the desire-for-control concept relate to attitudes and behavior. In addition, some practical implications for considering the role of motivation for personal control in a social influence situation are suggested.
Experiment 1
One way that information about normative points of view is transmitted today is through the use of public opinion surveys.
Those advocating a particular viewpoint often cite widespread public support for their position by providing data from these surveys. As in the Asch studies, the audience members for these appeals may allow the information about the judgments of oth- ers to influence their own attitudes on the particular issue. In Experiment 1, undergraduates were presented with an editorial that either contained this type of survey information or did not. I predicted that subjects would be more persuaded when led to believe that the vast majority of college students surveyed agreed with the writer. However, because people high in the de- sire for control are more likely than those low in the trait to resist the impression that they are being influenced by others, these subjects were expected to be persuaded by the survey data less than were the subjects low in desire for control.
Method
Subjects. Seventy-one male and female undergraduates served as sub- jects in exchange for class credit. .411 had taken a large test battery ap- proximately
0/5000
Desire for Control and Conformity to a Perceived NormJerry M. Burger Santa Clara UniversityThe role of individual differences in the general desire for control in conformity situations was exam- ined in three experiments. In Experiment 1, undergraduates low in desire for control were more likely to agree with a persuasive message when survey results were cited indicating public support for the advocated view. Subjects high in desire for control, however, were less persuaded by this message than when the survey information was not included. In Experiment 2, subjects gave humor ratings for cartoons in an Asch conformity paradigm. Subjects with low desire for control were more likely to agree with confederate ratings than were those with high desire for control. Experiment 3 results replicated this effect and ruled out the mere presence of others as an alternate interpretation of it. The findings from all three experiments are interpreted as a demonstration of the motivational component of the desire-for-control construct.It has been widely assumed that, other things being equal, people generally prefer to be in control of the events in their lives. Several theorists (deCharms, 1968; Deci, 1975: White, 1959) have described a motivation to see oneself as masterful and competent that is satisfied by effectively controlling impor- tant aspects of one's environment. White (1959) has identified this motivation for control as effectance or competence moti- vation. A series of recent investigations has also demonstrated that there are significant individual differences in the extent to which people generally prefer to have control over the events in their lives. Burger and Cooper (1979) introduced a scale to measure the concept desiref or control. They proposed that rela- tively stable individual differences in a general motivation to be in control can be identified and that these differences can ac- count for a significant percentage of variance in behaviors theo- retically related to a motive to control events and thereby feel masterful and competent. Research on desire for control has produced considerable va- lidity for this construct. For example, as compared with people who score low on measures of desire for control, high scorers have been found more susceptible to learned helplessness and depression (Burger. 1984; Burger & Arkin, 1980), more likely to succumb to the illusion of control in a gambling-type situation (Burger, 1986; Burger & Smith, 1985), more likely to exhibit Type A speech and behavior patterns (Dembroski, MacDou- gall, & Musante, 1984; Musante, MacDougall, Dembroski, & Van Horn, 1983), more likely to succeed at achievement tasks (Burger, 1985), and more susceptible to the perception of crowding (Burger, Oakman, & Bullard, 1983). In general, the effects of individual differences in desire for control can be placed into three categories. First, there are the perceptual differences that follow from differences in the per-Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jerry M. Burger, Department of Psychology, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, California 95053.son's need to see himself or herself in control. As demonstrated in the research on desire for control and gambling, people with high desire for control are more likely than those with low desire for control to distort their perceptions so as to see themselves as having more control over the situation than objective judgment would merit. Second, there are motivational features of desire- for-control differences. Research tying desire for control with achievement, for example, demonstrates that people high in the desire for control are more motivated than those low in this trait to do something that will maintain a sense of personal control or that will overcome challenges to their perception of personal control. Finally, there is the affective component to this individ- ual difference. Research on learned helplessness, for example, demonstrates that people high in the desire for control are more likely than their counterparts to have a strong affective response, in this case depressive affect, when faced with a perceived inabil- ity to control important events. This series of studies was designed to explore another area in which individual differences in desire for control theoretically should play a role—namely, conformity behavior. Research and theory on conformity and, more generally, social influence has been a central par! of social psychology for several decades (see Nemeth, 1986, and Tanford & Penrod, 1984, for recent state- ments on this research). The basic paradigm for a branch of this research is provided by Asch's (1951) classic research on conformity to group norms. In that research, subjects were asked to perform a visual discrimination task in the presence of several confederates posing as other subjects. The confederates, who always gave their responses first, selected an incorrect an- swer from among the response options in a line-matching task. The real subjects, who invariably made the correct response when answering without these confederates present, often re- acted to the confederate responses by agreeing with the other- wise obviously incorrect judgments about the length of the line. My hypothesis is thai people who typically have a high desire to control the events in their lives are less likely to conform to the group norm in this type of situation than are those who are low in the desire for control. This follows from the description355
356 JERRY M. BURGER
of the motivational components of this individual difference. Because people high in the desire for control prefer to see them- selves in control of events, they are more likely than their coun- terparts to interpret the conformity norm information as a threat to their perceived freedom to choose their own j udgments independently. This then generates a resistance to the perceived pressure, which causes the person high in desire for control to reduce intentionally the impact of this information when form- ing his or her judgment. In this way, the person high in desire for control is able lo maintain the perception that he or she independently arrived at the final judgment. On the other hand, those low in desire for control are less likely to interpret norm information as a threat and are not as motivated to maintain a feeling of independence of judgment. In addition, those with low desire for control may prefer to go along with the norm and thereby avoid the problems encountered when taking a minor- ity stand. In the only relevant investigation on this point to date, Burger and Vartabedian (1980) found that subjects high in the desire for control, compared with those low in the trait, were less likely to be persuaded by a speech when they were initially in disagree- ment with the speaker's position. The researchers argued that these subjects were more resistant to persuasion because alter- ing their attitudes after being presented with the speech would have caused them to feel less in control of what they believed than they preferred. I used the Asch conformity paradigm in this set of studies in two ways. Subjects in the first experiment were given informa- tion as part of a persuasive message that indicated that public opinion was largely in agreement with the writer. Thus, instead of hearing confederates give responses to stimuli, data from a public opinion survey served to communicate the norm to which the subjects might conform. In the second and third ex- periments, a situation more similar to the Asch studies was used. Confederates gave their judgments to stimuli in the pres- ence of a naive subject. However, instead of asking subjects to judge line length, subjects were asked to evaluate the level of humor in a series of cartoons. This was done for two reasons. First, the widespread coverage of Asch's work in high school and introductory college psychology courses created the possibility that many of the undergraduate subjects used in this research would have familiarity with the paradigm. Second, other re- searchers using the humor judgment task (e.g., Bern, 1975) found that these judgments were fairly susceptible to confor- mity pressures from confederates. I predicted that in both of these situations, subjects high in desire for control would be less likely to agree with the majority or confederate opinions than would those low in desire for con- trol. The findings from these studies thus have the potential to add to the understanding of how the motivational aspects of the desire-for-control concept relate to attitudes and behavior. In addition, some practical implications for considering the role of motivation for personal control in a social influence situation are suggested.
Experiment 1
One way that information about normative points of view is transmitted today is through the use of public opinion surveys.
Those advocating a particular viewpoint often cite widespread public support for their position by providing data from these surveys. As in the Asch studies, the audience members for these appeals may allow the information about the judgments of oth- ers to influence their own attitudes on the particular issue. In Experiment 1, undergraduates were presented with an editorial that either contained this type of survey information or did not. I predicted that subjects would be more persuaded when led to believe that the vast majority of college students surveyed agreed with the writer. However, because people high in the de- sire for control are more likely than those low in the trait to resist the impression that they are being influenced by others, these subjects were expected to be persuaded by the survey data less than were the subjects low in desire for control.
Method
Subjects. Seventy-one male and female undergraduates served as sub- jects in exchange for class credit. .411 had taken a large test battery ap- proximately
356 JERRY M. BURGER
of the motivational components of this individual difference. Because people high in the desire for control prefer to see them- selves in control of events, they are more likely than their coun- terparts to interpret the conformity norm information as a threat to their perceived freedom to choose their own j udgments independently. This then generates a resistance to the perceived pressure, which causes the person high in desire for control to reduce intentionally the impact of this information when form- ing his or her judgment. In this way, the person high in desire for control is able lo maintain the perception that he or she independently arrived at the final judgment. On the other hand, those low in desire for control are less likely to interpret norm information as a threat and are not as motivated to maintain a feeling of independence of judgment. In addition, those with low desire for control may prefer to go along with the norm and thereby avoid the problems encountered when taking a minor- ity stand. In the only relevant investigation on this point to date, Burger and Vartabedian (1980) found that subjects high in the desire for control, compared with those low in the trait, were less likely to be persuaded by a speech when they were initially in disagree- ment with the speaker's position. The researchers argued that these subjects were more resistant to persuasion because alter- ing their attitudes after being presented with the speech would have caused them to feel less in control of what they believed than they preferred. I used the Asch conformity paradigm in this set of studies in two ways. Subjects in the first experiment were given informa- tion as part of a persuasive message that indicated that public opinion was largely in agreement with the writer. Thus, instead of hearing confederates give responses to stimuli, data from a public opinion survey served to communicate the norm to which the subjects might conform. In the second and third ex- periments, a situation more similar to the Asch studies was used. Confederates gave their judgments to stimuli in the pres- ence of a naive subject. However, instead of asking subjects to judge line length, subjects were asked to evaluate the level of humor in a series of cartoons. This was done for two reasons. First, the widespread coverage of Asch's work in high school and introductory college psychology courses created the possibility that many of the undergraduate subjects used in this research would have familiarity with the paradigm. Second, other re- searchers using the humor judgment task (e.g., Bern, 1975) found that these judgments were fairly susceptible to confor- mity pressures from confederates. I predicted that in both of these situations, subjects high in desire for control would be less likely to agree with the majority or confederate opinions than would those low in desire for con- trol. The findings from these studies thus have the potential to add to the understanding of how the motivational aspects of the desire-for-control concept relate to attitudes and behavior. In addition, some practical implications for considering the role of motivation for personal control in a social influence situation are suggested.
Experiment 1
One way that information about normative points of view is transmitted today is through the use of public opinion surveys.
Those advocating a particular viewpoint often cite widespread public support for their position by providing data from these surveys. As in the Asch studies, the audience members for these appeals may allow the information about the judgments of oth- ers to influence their own attitudes on the particular issue. In Experiment 1, undergraduates were presented with an editorial that either contained this type of survey information or did not. I predicted that subjects would be more persuaded when led to believe that the vast majority of college students surveyed agreed with the writer. However, because people high in the de- sire for control are more likely than those low in the trait to resist the impression that they are being influenced by others, these subjects were expected to be persuaded by the survey data less than were the subjects low in desire for control.
Method
Subjects. Seventy-one male and female undergraduates served as sub- jects in exchange for class credit. .411 had taken a large test battery ap- proximately
Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
Keinginan untuk Pengendalian dan Kesesuaian ke Dirasakan Norm
Jerry M. Burger Santa Clara University
Peran perbedaan individu dalam keinginan umum untuk kontrol dalam situasi sesuai adalah-contoh terbayang dalam tiga percobaan. Dalam Percobaan 1, mahasiswa rendah keinginan untuk kontrol lebih cenderung setuju dengan pesan persuasif ketika hasil survei yang dikutip menunjukkan dukungan publik untuk tampilan menganjurkan. Subyek tinggi dalam keinginan untuk kontrol, bagaimanapun, kurang dibujuk oleh pesan ini daripada ketika informasi survei tidak termasuk. Dalam eksperimen 2, subjek memberikan peringkat humor kartun dalam paradigma sesuai Asch. Subyek dengan keinginan rendah untuk kontrol lebih cenderung setuju dengan penilaian konfederasi dibandingkan mereka dengan keinginan yang tinggi untuk kontrol. Percobaan 3 hasil direplikasi efek ini dan mengesampingkan Kehadiran orang lain sebagai interpretasi alternatif itu. Temuan dari ketiga percobaan ditafsirkan sebagai demonstrasi komponen motivasi keinginan-untuk-control membangun.
Telah banyak diasumsikan bahwa, hal lain dianggap sama, orang umumnya lebih memilih untuk mengendalikan peristiwa dalam hidup mereka. Beberapa ahli teori (deCharms, 1968; Deci, 1975: Putih, 1959) telah dijelaskan motivasi untuk melihat diri sendiri sebagai ahli dan kompeten yang dipenuhi oleh efektif mengendalikan aspek penting terjadinya lingkungan seseorang. Putih (1959) telah mengidentifikasi motivasi ini untuk kontrol sebagai effectance atau kompetensi motivasi. Serangkaian penyelidikan baru-baru ini juga telah menunjukkan bahwa ada perbedaan individu yang signifikan dalam sejauh mana orang umumnya lebih memilih untuk memiliki kontrol atas peristiwa dalam hidup mereka. Burger dan Cooper (1979) memperkenalkan skala untuk mengukur desiref konsep atau kontrol. Mereka mengusulkan bahwa relativitas perbedaan individu-masing stabil dalam motivasi umum berada dalam kontrol dapat diidentifikasi dan bahwa perbedaan ini dapat ac- count untuk persentase yang signifikan dari varian perilaku theo- retically terkait dengan motif untuk mengontrol peristiwa dan dengan demikian merasa ahli dan kompeten. Penelitian tentang keinginan untuk kontrol telah menghasilkan lidity va- cukup untuk membangun ini. Sebagai contoh, dibandingkan dengan orang-orang yang mendapat skor rendah pada langkah-langkah keinginan untuk kontrol, skor tinggi telah ditemukan lebih rentan terhadap ketidakberdayaan yang dipelajari dan depresi (Burger 1984;. Burger & Arkin, 1980), lebih cenderung menyerah pada ilusi kontrol dalam situasi perjudian jenis (Burger, 1986; Burger & Smith, 1985), lebih mungkin untuk menunjukkan Tipe A bicara dan pola perilaku (Dembroski, empedu MacDou-, & Musante, 1984; Musante, MacDougall, Dembroski, & Van Horn, 1983), lebih mungkin untuk berhasil di tugas prestasi (Burger, 1985), dan lebih rentan terhadap persepsi crowding (Burger, Oakman, & Bullard, 1983). Secara umum, efek dari perbedaan individu dalam keinginan untuk kontrol dapat ditempatkan dalam tiga kategori. Pertama, ada perbedaan persepsi yang mengikuti dari perbedaan dalam per-
Correspondence mengenai artikel ini harus ditujukan kepada Jerry M. Burger, Departemen Psikologi, Universitas Santa Clara, Santa Clara, California 95053.
kebutuhan anak untuk melihat dirinya sendiri di control. Seperti yang ditunjukkan dalam penelitian pada keinginan untuk kontrol dan perjudian, orang-orang dengan keinginan yang tinggi untuk kontrol lebih mungkin dibandingkan dengan keinginan rendah untuk kontrol untuk mendistorsi persepsi mereka sehingga untuk melihat diri mereka sebagai memiliki kontrol lebih besar atas situasi daripada penilaian yang obyektif akan pantas. Kedua, ada fitur motivasi desire- untuk kontrol perbedaan. Penelitian mengikat keinginan untuk kontrol dengan prestasi, misalnya, menunjukkan bahwa orang-orang yang tinggi dalam keinginan untuk kontrol yang lebih termotivasi daripada yang rendah dalam sifat ini untuk melakukan sesuatu yang akan mempertahankan rasa kontrol pribadi atau yang akan mengatasi tantangan persepsi mereka tentang pribadi control. Akhirnya, ada komponen afektif untuk ual perbedaan individ- ini. Penelitian tentang ketidakberdayaan yang dipelajari, misalnya, menunjukkan bahwa orang-orang yang tinggi dalam keinginan untuk kontrol lebih mungkin daripada rekan-rekan mereka untuk memiliki respon afektif yang kuat, dalam hal ini depresi mempengaruhi, ketika dihadapkan dengan ity inabil- dirasakan untuk mengontrol peristiwa-peristiwa penting. Rangkaian penelitian dirancang untuk menjelajahi daerah lain di mana perbedaan individu dalam keinginan untuk kontrol secara teoritis harus memainkan peran-yaitu, perilaku sesuai. Penelitian dan teori tentang kesesuaian dan, lebih umum, pengaruh sosial telah menjadi par sentral! psikologi sosial selama beberapa dekade (lihat Nemeth, 1986, dan Tanford & Penrod, 1984, untuk KASIH negara bagian baru pada penelitian ini). Paradigma dasar untuk cabang penelitian ini disediakan oleh (1951) penelitian klasik Asch tentang kesesuaian dengan norma-norma kelompok. Dalam penelitian itu, subjek diminta untuk melakukan tugas diskriminasi visual dalam kehadiran beberapa sekutu menyamar sebagai mata pelajaran lain. Para sekutu, yang selalu memberikan tanggapan pertama mereka, memilih sebuah jawabannya yaitu salah dari antara pilihan respon dalam tugas line-matching. Subyek yang nyata, yang selalu membuat respon yang benar saat menjawab tanpa sekutu ini hadir, sering re- bertindak untuk tanggapan konfederasi dengan menyetujui dengan bijak penilaian jelas salah lain- tentang panjang garis. Hipotesis saya adalah orang thai yang biasanya memiliki keinginan yang tinggi untuk mengontrol peristiwa dalam hidup mereka cenderung untuk menyesuaikan diri dengan norma kelompok dalam situasi semacam ini daripada mereka yang rendah dalam keinginan untuk kontrol. Ini mengikuti dari deskripsi
355
356 JERRY M. BURGER
komponen motivasional perbedaan individu ini. Karena orang-orang yang tinggi dalam keinginan untuk kontrol lebih memilih untuk melihat diri mereka mengendalikan peristiwa, mereka lebih mungkin dibandingkan terparts-negara mereka untuk menafsirkan informasi sesuai norma sebagai ancaman bagi kebebasan mereka dianggap memilih udgments j mereka sendiri secara mandiri. Hal ini kemudian menghasilkan resistensi terhadap tekanan yang dirasakan, yang menyebabkan orang yang tinggi dalam keinginan untuk kontrol untuk mengurangi sengaja dampak informasi ini ketika form- ing penilaian nya. Dengan cara ini, orang yang tinggi dalam keinginan untuk kontrol mampu lo mempertahankan persepsi bahwa ia independen tiba di penghakiman terakhir. Di sisi lain, mereka yang rendah dalam keinginan untuk kontrol cenderung menginterpretasikan informasi norma sebagai ancaman dan tidak termotivasi untuk menjaga perasaan kemerdekaan penghakiman. Selain itu, orang-orang dengan keinginan yang rendah untuk kontrol dapat memilih untuk pergi bersama dengan norma dan dengan demikian menghindari masalah yang dihadapi saat mengambil ity berdiri Minor. Dalam satu-satunya investigasi yang relevan dalam hal ini sampai saat ini, Burger dan Vartabedian (1980) menemukan bahwa subyek yang tinggi dalam keinginan untuk kontrol, dibandingkan dengan mereka yang rendah dalam sifat tersebut, yang kemungkinan besar tidak akan dibujuk oleh pidato ketika mereka awalnya tidak setuju di - ment dengan posisi pembicara. Para peneliti berpendapat bahwa mata pelajaran ini lebih tahan terhadap persuasi karena alter- ing sikap mereka setelah disajikan dengan pidato akan menyebabkan mereka merasa kurang mengendalikan apa yang mereka yakini dari mereka lebih suka. Saya menggunakan paradigma sesuai Asch dalam rangkaian studi dalam dua cara. Subjek dalam percobaan pertama diberi informasi yang sebagai bagian dari pesan persuasif yang menunjukkan bahwa opini publik sebagian besar dalam perjanjian dengan penulis. Jadi, bukannya mendengar sekutu memberikan respon terhadap rangsangan, data dari survei opini publik berfungsi untuk berkomunikasi norma yang subjek mungkin sesuai. Dalam periments mantan kedua dan ketiga, situasi yang lebih mirip dengan studi Asch digunakan. Konfederasi memberikan penilaian mereka terhadap rangsangan dari hadirnya dari subjek naif. Namun, alih-alih meminta subyek untuk panjang garis hakim, subjek diminta untuk mengevaluasi tingkat humor dalam serangkaian kartun. Hal ini dilakukan karena dua alasan. Pertama, cakupan luas dari karya Asch di sekolah tinggi dan pengantar kuliah psikologi kuliah menciptakan kemungkinan bahwa banyak pelajaran sarjana yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini akan memiliki keakraban dengan paradigma. Kedua, pencari ulang lain menggunakan tugas penghakiman humor (misalnya, Bern, 1975) menemukan bahwa penilaian ini yang cukup rentan terhadap tekanan confor- mity dari sekutu. Saya meramalkan bahwa dalam kedua situasi ini, mata pelajaran yang tinggi dalam keinginan untuk kontrol akan lebih kecil kemungkinannya untuk setuju dengan mayoritas atau pendapat konfederasi dibandingkan akan mereka rendah keinginan untuk kontrol. Temuan dari studi ini sehingga memiliki potensi untuk menambah pemahaman tentang bagaimana aspek motivasi dari keinginan-untuk-control konsep berhubungan dengan sikap dan perilaku. Selain itu, beberapa implikasi praktis untuk mempertimbangkan peran motivasi untuk kontrol pribadi dalam situasi pengaruh sosial yang disarankan.
Percobaan 1
Salah satu cara bahwa informasi tentang titik pandang normatif ditularkan saat ini adalah melalui penggunaan survei opini publik.
Mereka menganjurkan tertentu sudut pandang sering mengutip dukungan publik yang luas untuk posisi mereka dengan memberikan data dari survei ini. Seperti dalam studi Asch, para penonton untuk banding ini memungkinkan informasi tentang penilaian dari orang lain untuk mempengaruhi sikap mereka sendiri pada isu tertentu. Dalam Percobaan 1, mahasiswa disajikan dengan editorial yang baik mengandung jenis informasi survei atau tidak. Saya meramalkan bahwa mata pelajaran akan lebih dibujuk ketika dituntun untuk percaya bahwa sebagian besar mahasiswa yang disurvei setuju dengan penulis. Namun, karena orang yang tinggi di Sire de- untuk kontrol yang lebih mungkin dibandingkan mereka yang rendah dalam sifat untuk melawan kesan bahwa mereka sedang dipengaruhi oleh orang lain, mata pelajaran ini diharapkan akan dibujuk oleh data survei kurang dari itu subyek rendah dalam keinginan untuk kontrol.
Metode
Subjek. Tujuh puluh satu mahasiswa pria dan wanita menjabat sebagai jects sub dalam pertukaran untuk kredit kelas. 0,411 telah mengambil baterai tes besar kira--kira
Jerry M. Burger Santa Clara University
Peran perbedaan individu dalam keinginan umum untuk kontrol dalam situasi sesuai adalah-contoh terbayang dalam tiga percobaan. Dalam Percobaan 1, mahasiswa rendah keinginan untuk kontrol lebih cenderung setuju dengan pesan persuasif ketika hasil survei yang dikutip menunjukkan dukungan publik untuk tampilan menganjurkan. Subyek tinggi dalam keinginan untuk kontrol, bagaimanapun, kurang dibujuk oleh pesan ini daripada ketika informasi survei tidak termasuk. Dalam eksperimen 2, subjek memberikan peringkat humor kartun dalam paradigma sesuai Asch. Subyek dengan keinginan rendah untuk kontrol lebih cenderung setuju dengan penilaian konfederasi dibandingkan mereka dengan keinginan yang tinggi untuk kontrol. Percobaan 3 hasil direplikasi efek ini dan mengesampingkan Kehadiran orang lain sebagai interpretasi alternatif itu. Temuan dari ketiga percobaan ditafsirkan sebagai demonstrasi komponen motivasi keinginan-untuk-control membangun.
Telah banyak diasumsikan bahwa, hal lain dianggap sama, orang umumnya lebih memilih untuk mengendalikan peristiwa dalam hidup mereka. Beberapa ahli teori (deCharms, 1968; Deci, 1975: Putih, 1959) telah dijelaskan motivasi untuk melihat diri sendiri sebagai ahli dan kompeten yang dipenuhi oleh efektif mengendalikan aspek penting terjadinya lingkungan seseorang. Putih (1959) telah mengidentifikasi motivasi ini untuk kontrol sebagai effectance atau kompetensi motivasi. Serangkaian penyelidikan baru-baru ini juga telah menunjukkan bahwa ada perbedaan individu yang signifikan dalam sejauh mana orang umumnya lebih memilih untuk memiliki kontrol atas peristiwa dalam hidup mereka. Burger dan Cooper (1979) memperkenalkan skala untuk mengukur desiref konsep atau kontrol. Mereka mengusulkan bahwa relativitas perbedaan individu-masing stabil dalam motivasi umum berada dalam kontrol dapat diidentifikasi dan bahwa perbedaan ini dapat ac- count untuk persentase yang signifikan dari varian perilaku theo- retically terkait dengan motif untuk mengontrol peristiwa dan dengan demikian merasa ahli dan kompeten. Penelitian tentang keinginan untuk kontrol telah menghasilkan lidity va- cukup untuk membangun ini. Sebagai contoh, dibandingkan dengan orang-orang yang mendapat skor rendah pada langkah-langkah keinginan untuk kontrol, skor tinggi telah ditemukan lebih rentan terhadap ketidakberdayaan yang dipelajari dan depresi (Burger 1984;. Burger & Arkin, 1980), lebih cenderung menyerah pada ilusi kontrol dalam situasi perjudian jenis (Burger, 1986; Burger & Smith, 1985), lebih mungkin untuk menunjukkan Tipe A bicara dan pola perilaku (Dembroski, empedu MacDou-, & Musante, 1984; Musante, MacDougall, Dembroski, & Van Horn, 1983), lebih mungkin untuk berhasil di tugas prestasi (Burger, 1985), dan lebih rentan terhadap persepsi crowding (Burger, Oakman, & Bullard, 1983). Secara umum, efek dari perbedaan individu dalam keinginan untuk kontrol dapat ditempatkan dalam tiga kategori. Pertama, ada perbedaan persepsi yang mengikuti dari perbedaan dalam per-
Correspondence mengenai artikel ini harus ditujukan kepada Jerry M. Burger, Departemen Psikologi, Universitas Santa Clara, Santa Clara, California 95053.
kebutuhan anak untuk melihat dirinya sendiri di control. Seperti yang ditunjukkan dalam penelitian pada keinginan untuk kontrol dan perjudian, orang-orang dengan keinginan yang tinggi untuk kontrol lebih mungkin dibandingkan dengan keinginan rendah untuk kontrol untuk mendistorsi persepsi mereka sehingga untuk melihat diri mereka sebagai memiliki kontrol lebih besar atas situasi daripada penilaian yang obyektif akan pantas. Kedua, ada fitur motivasi desire- untuk kontrol perbedaan. Penelitian mengikat keinginan untuk kontrol dengan prestasi, misalnya, menunjukkan bahwa orang-orang yang tinggi dalam keinginan untuk kontrol yang lebih termotivasi daripada yang rendah dalam sifat ini untuk melakukan sesuatu yang akan mempertahankan rasa kontrol pribadi atau yang akan mengatasi tantangan persepsi mereka tentang pribadi control. Akhirnya, ada komponen afektif untuk ual perbedaan individ- ini. Penelitian tentang ketidakberdayaan yang dipelajari, misalnya, menunjukkan bahwa orang-orang yang tinggi dalam keinginan untuk kontrol lebih mungkin daripada rekan-rekan mereka untuk memiliki respon afektif yang kuat, dalam hal ini depresi mempengaruhi, ketika dihadapkan dengan ity inabil- dirasakan untuk mengontrol peristiwa-peristiwa penting. Rangkaian penelitian dirancang untuk menjelajahi daerah lain di mana perbedaan individu dalam keinginan untuk kontrol secara teoritis harus memainkan peran-yaitu, perilaku sesuai. Penelitian dan teori tentang kesesuaian dan, lebih umum, pengaruh sosial telah menjadi par sentral! psikologi sosial selama beberapa dekade (lihat Nemeth, 1986, dan Tanford & Penrod, 1984, untuk KASIH negara bagian baru pada penelitian ini). Paradigma dasar untuk cabang penelitian ini disediakan oleh (1951) penelitian klasik Asch tentang kesesuaian dengan norma-norma kelompok. Dalam penelitian itu, subjek diminta untuk melakukan tugas diskriminasi visual dalam kehadiran beberapa sekutu menyamar sebagai mata pelajaran lain. Para sekutu, yang selalu memberikan tanggapan pertama mereka, memilih sebuah jawabannya yaitu salah dari antara pilihan respon dalam tugas line-matching. Subyek yang nyata, yang selalu membuat respon yang benar saat menjawab tanpa sekutu ini hadir, sering re- bertindak untuk tanggapan konfederasi dengan menyetujui dengan bijak penilaian jelas salah lain- tentang panjang garis. Hipotesis saya adalah orang thai yang biasanya memiliki keinginan yang tinggi untuk mengontrol peristiwa dalam hidup mereka cenderung untuk menyesuaikan diri dengan norma kelompok dalam situasi semacam ini daripada mereka yang rendah dalam keinginan untuk kontrol. Ini mengikuti dari deskripsi
355
356 JERRY M. BURGER
komponen motivasional perbedaan individu ini. Karena orang-orang yang tinggi dalam keinginan untuk kontrol lebih memilih untuk melihat diri mereka mengendalikan peristiwa, mereka lebih mungkin dibandingkan terparts-negara mereka untuk menafsirkan informasi sesuai norma sebagai ancaman bagi kebebasan mereka dianggap memilih udgments j mereka sendiri secara mandiri. Hal ini kemudian menghasilkan resistensi terhadap tekanan yang dirasakan, yang menyebabkan orang yang tinggi dalam keinginan untuk kontrol untuk mengurangi sengaja dampak informasi ini ketika form- ing penilaian nya. Dengan cara ini, orang yang tinggi dalam keinginan untuk kontrol mampu lo mempertahankan persepsi bahwa ia independen tiba di penghakiman terakhir. Di sisi lain, mereka yang rendah dalam keinginan untuk kontrol cenderung menginterpretasikan informasi norma sebagai ancaman dan tidak termotivasi untuk menjaga perasaan kemerdekaan penghakiman. Selain itu, orang-orang dengan keinginan yang rendah untuk kontrol dapat memilih untuk pergi bersama dengan norma dan dengan demikian menghindari masalah yang dihadapi saat mengambil ity berdiri Minor. Dalam satu-satunya investigasi yang relevan dalam hal ini sampai saat ini, Burger dan Vartabedian (1980) menemukan bahwa subyek yang tinggi dalam keinginan untuk kontrol, dibandingkan dengan mereka yang rendah dalam sifat tersebut, yang kemungkinan besar tidak akan dibujuk oleh pidato ketika mereka awalnya tidak setuju di - ment dengan posisi pembicara. Para peneliti berpendapat bahwa mata pelajaran ini lebih tahan terhadap persuasi karena alter- ing sikap mereka setelah disajikan dengan pidato akan menyebabkan mereka merasa kurang mengendalikan apa yang mereka yakini dari mereka lebih suka. Saya menggunakan paradigma sesuai Asch dalam rangkaian studi dalam dua cara. Subjek dalam percobaan pertama diberi informasi yang sebagai bagian dari pesan persuasif yang menunjukkan bahwa opini publik sebagian besar dalam perjanjian dengan penulis. Jadi, bukannya mendengar sekutu memberikan respon terhadap rangsangan, data dari survei opini publik berfungsi untuk berkomunikasi norma yang subjek mungkin sesuai. Dalam periments mantan kedua dan ketiga, situasi yang lebih mirip dengan studi Asch digunakan. Konfederasi memberikan penilaian mereka terhadap rangsangan dari hadirnya dari subjek naif. Namun, alih-alih meminta subyek untuk panjang garis hakim, subjek diminta untuk mengevaluasi tingkat humor dalam serangkaian kartun. Hal ini dilakukan karena dua alasan. Pertama, cakupan luas dari karya Asch di sekolah tinggi dan pengantar kuliah psikologi kuliah menciptakan kemungkinan bahwa banyak pelajaran sarjana yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini akan memiliki keakraban dengan paradigma. Kedua, pencari ulang lain menggunakan tugas penghakiman humor (misalnya, Bern, 1975) menemukan bahwa penilaian ini yang cukup rentan terhadap tekanan confor- mity dari sekutu. Saya meramalkan bahwa dalam kedua situasi ini, mata pelajaran yang tinggi dalam keinginan untuk kontrol akan lebih kecil kemungkinannya untuk setuju dengan mayoritas atau pendapat konfederasi dibandingkan akan mereka rendah keinginan untuk kontrol. Temuan dari studi ini sehingga memiliki potensi untuk menambah pemahaman tentang bagaimana aspek motivasi dari keinginan-untuk-control konsep berhubungan dengan sikap dan perilaku. Selain itu, beberapa implikasi praktis untuk mempertimbangkan peran motivasi untuk kontrol pribadi dalam situasi pengaruh sosial yang disarankan.
Percobaan 1
Salah satu cara bahwa informasi tentang titik pandang normatif ditularkan saat ini adalah melalui penggunaan survei opini publik.
Mereka menganjurkan tertentu sudut pandang sering mengutip dukungan publik yang luas untuk posisi mereka dengan memberikan data dari survei ini. Seperti dalam studi Asch, para penonton untuk banding ini memungkinkan informasi tentang penilaian dari orang lain untuk mempengaruhi sikap mereka sendiri pada isu tertentu. Dalam Percobaan 1, mahasiswa disajikan dengan editorial yang baik mengandung jenis informasi survei atau tidak. Saya meramalkan bahwa mata pelajaran akan lebih dibujuk ketika dituntun untuk percaya bahwa sebagian besar mahasiswa yang disurvei setuju dengan penulis. Namun, karena orang yang tinggi di Sire de- untuk kontrol yang lebih mungkin dibandingkan mereka yang rendah dalam sifat untuk melawan kesan bahwa mereka sedang dipengaruhi oleh orang lain, mata pelajaran ini diharapkan akan dibujuk oleh data survei kurang dari itu subyek rendah dalam keinginan untuk kontrol.
Metode
Subjek. Tujuh puluh satu mahasiswa pria dan wanita menjabat sebagai jects sub dalam pertukaran untuk kredit kelas. 0,411 telah mengambil baterai tes besar kira--kira
Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
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