There are gaps in this fabric of un

There are gaps in this fabric of unknown breadth,and many of the strands composing it are as delicate as
spider's silk.Predictive syntheses,the ultimate goal of science,are still
in an early stage,and especially so in biology.Yet I think it fair to say
that enough is known to justify confidence in the principle of universal
rational consilience across all the natural sciences.
The explanatory network now touches the edge of culture it self .It
has reached the boundary that separates the natural sciences on one
side from the humanities and humanistic social sciences on the other.
Granted,for most scholars the two domains,commonly called the scientific and literary cultures,still have a look of permanence about
them.From Apollonian law to Dionysian spirit,prose to poetry,left
cortical hemisphere to right,the line between the two domains can be
easily crossed back and forth,but no one know show to translate the
tongue of one into that of the other.Should we even try ?I believe so,
and for the best of reasons:The goal is both important and attainable.
The time has come to reassess the boundary.
Even if that perception is disputed—and it will be—few can deny
that the division between the two cultures is aperennial source of misunderstanding and conflict."This polarisation is sheer loss to us all,"
FromGenestoCulture137
wroteC.P.Snowinhisdefining195 9essayThe TwoCulturesand the
ScientificRevolution."Tousaspeople,andtooursociety.Itisatthe
sametimepracticalandintellectualandcreativeloss."
Thepolarizationpromotes,foronething,theperpetualrecycling
ofthenature-nurturecontroversy,spinningof fmostlysteriledebates
ongender,sexualpreferences,ethnicity,andhumannatureitself .The
rootcauseoftheproblemisasobvioustodayasitwaswhenSnowru-minatedonitatChristCollegehightable:theoverspecializationof
theeducatedelite.Publicintellectuals,andtrailingclosebehindthem
themediaprofessionals,havebeentrainedalmostwithoutexception
inthesocialsciencesandhumanities.Theyconsiderhumannatureto
betheirprovinceandhavedifficultyconceivingtherelevanceofthe
naturalsciencestosocialbehaviorandpolicy.Naturalscientists,
whoseexpertiseisdicedintonarrowcompartmentswithlittleconnec-tiontohumanaffairs,areindeedillpreparedtoengagethesamesub-jects.WhatdoesabiochemistknowoflegaltheoryandtheChina
trade?Itisnotenoughtorepeattheoldnostrumthatallscholars,nat-uralandsocialscientistsandhumanistsalike,areanimatedbyacom-moncreativespirit.Theyareindeedcreativesiblings,buttheylacka
commonlanguage.
Thereisonlyonewaytounitethegreatbranchesoflearningand
endtheculturewars.Itistoviewtheboundarybetweenthescientific
andliteraryculturesnotasaterritoriallinebutasabroadandmostly
unexploredterrainawaitingcooperativeentryfro mbothsides.The
misunderstandingsarisefro mignoranceoftheterrain,notfroma
fundamentaldifferenceinmentality.Thetwoculturessharethefol-lowingchallenge.Weknowthatvirtuallyallofhumanbehavioris
transmittedbyculture.Wealsoknowthatbiologyhasanimportant
effectontheoriginofcultureandit stransmission.Thequestionre-mainingishowbiologyandcultureinteract,andinparticularhow
theyinteractacrossallsocietiestocreatethecommonalitiesofhu-mannature.What,infinalanalysis,joinsthedeep,mostlygenetichis-toryofthespeciesasawholetothemorerecentculturalhistoriesof
it sfar-flungsocieties?That,inmyopinion,isthenuboftherelation-shipbetweenthetwocultures.Itcanbestatedasaproblemtobe
solved,thecentralproblemofthesocialsciencesandthehumanities,
andsimultaneouslyoneofthegreatremainingproblemsofthenatural
sciences.
Atthepresenttimenoonehasasolution.Butinthesensethatno
138CONSILIENC E
onein184 2knewthetruecauseofevolutionandin195 2nooneknew
thenatureofthegeneticcode,thewaytosolvetheproblemmaylie
withinourgrasp.Afe wresearchers,andIamoneofthem,eventhink
theyknowtheapproximateformtheanswerwilltake.Fromdiverse
vantagepointsinbiology,psychology,andanthropology,theyhave
conceivedaprocesscalledgene-culturecoevolution.Inessence,the
conceptionobserves,first ,thattogeneticevolutionthehumanlineage
hasaddedtheparalleltrackofculturalevolution,and,second,thatthe
twoformsofevolutionarelinked.Ibelievethemajorityofcontributors
tothetheoryduringthepasttwentyyearswouldagreetothefollowing
outlineofit sprinciples:
Cultureiscreatedbythecommunal mind,andeachmindinturnis
theproductofthegenetically structuredhuman brain.Genesandcul-turearetherefore inseverablylinked.Butthe linkage isflexible, toa de-greestill mostlyunmeasured.Thelinkageisalsotortuous:Genes
prescribeepigenetic rules, whichare theneuralpathwaysandregulari-tiesincognitivedevelopmentbywhichtheindividual mind assemblesit-self.Themindgrowsfrombirthtodeath byabsorbingparts ofthe
existingculture availabletoit,withselectionsguidedthroughepigenetic
rulesinheritedbytheindividualbrain.
Tovisualizegene-culturecoevolutionmoreconcretely,consider
theexampleofsnakesanddreamserpents,whichIusedearlierto
arguetheplausibilityofcompleteconsilience.Theinnatetendencyto
reactwithbothfearandfascinationtowardsnakesistheepigenetic
rule.Theculturedrawsonthatfearandfascinationtocreate
metaphorsandnarratives.Theprocessisthus:
Aspartofgene-culturecoevolution,cultureis reconstructedeach
generationcollectivelyin the minds ofindividuals.Whenoraltradition
issupplementedby writing andart,culturecangrowindefinitelylarge
anditcaneven skipgenerations.Butthe fundamentalbiasinginfluence
oftheepigeneticrules,beinggeneticand ineradicable,staysconstant.
Hencetheprominenceofdreamserpentsinthelegendsandartof
theAmazonianshamansenrichestheircultureacrossgenerations
undertheguidanceoftheserpentineepigeneticrule.
Someindividualsinheritepigeneticrulesenablingthem tosurvive
andreproducebetterinthesurrounding environmentandculturethan
individualswholackthoserules,oratleastpossesstheminweakerva-lence.Bythismeans,overmany generations,themoresuccessfulepige-neticruleshavespreadthroughthepopulationalongwiththegenesthat
FromGenestoCulture139
prescribethe rules.As a consequence thehuman species hasevolvedge-neticallybynaturalselectioninbehavior, justasithasintheanatomy
andphysiologyofthebrain.
Poisonoussnakeshavebeenanimportantsourceofmortalityinal-mostallsocietiesthroughouthumanevolution.Closeattentionto
them,enhancedbydreamserpentsandthesymbolsofculture,un-doubtedlyimprovesthechancesofsurvival.
Thenatureofthegeneticleashandtheroleofculturecannowbe
betterunderstood,asfollows.Certainculturalnormsalsosurviveandre-producebetterthancompetingnorms, causingcultureto evolveina
trackparallelto andusuallymuch fasterthangenetic evolution.The
quickerthe pace of cultural evolution, the looser the connection between
genesandculture,althoughthe connectionisnevercompletelybroken.
Cultureallowsarapidadjustmenttochangesin theenvironment
throughfinely tunedadaptationsinventedand transmittedwithout cor-respondinglyprecisegeneticprescription.In thisrespecthumanbeings
differfundamentallyfromallotheranimalspecies.
Finally,tocompletetheexampleofgene-culturecoevolution,the
frequencywithwhichdreamserpentsandserpentsymbolsinhabita
cultureisseentobeadjustedtotheabundanceofrealpoisonous
snakesintheenvironment.Butowingtothepoweroffearandfascina-tiongiventhembytheepigeneticrule,theyeasilyacquireadditional
mythicmeaning;theyserveindifferentculturesvariouslyashealers,
messengers,demons,andgods.
Gene-culturecoevolutionisaspecialextensionofthemoregen-eralprocessofevolutionbynaturalselection.Biologistsgenerally
agreethattheprimaryforcebehindevolutioninhumanbeingsandall
otherorganismsisnaturalselection.ThatiswhatcreatedHomosapi-ensduringthefiveorsi xmillionyearsaftertheancestralhominid
speciessplitof ffro maprimitivechimpanzeelikestock.Evolutionby
naturalselectionisnotanidlehypothesis.Thegeneticvariationon
whichselectionactsiswellunderstoodinprincipleallthewaydown
tothemolecularlevel."Evolutionwatchers"amongfieldbiologists
havemonitoredevolutionbynaturalselection,generationbygenera-tion,innaturalpopulationsofanimalsandplants.Theresultcanoften
bereproducedinthelaboratory,evenuptothecreationofnew
species,fo rexamplebyhybridizationandthebreedingofreproduc-tivelyisolatedstrains.Themannerinwhichtraitsofanatomy,physi-ology,andbehavioradaptorganismstotheirenvironmenthasbeen
140CONSILIENC E
massivelydocumented.Thefossi lhominidrecord,fro mman-apesto
modernhumans,whilestilllackingmanydetails,issolidinmainout-line,withawellestablishedchronology.
Insimplestterms,evolutionbynaturalselectionproceeds,asthe
FrenchbiologistJacquesMonodonceputit(rephrasingDemocritus),
bychanceandnecessity.Differentformsofthesamegene,calledal-leles,originatebymutations,whicharerandomchangesinthelong
sequencesofDNA(deoxyribonucleicacid)thatcomposethegene.In
additiontosuchpoint-by-pointscramblingoftheDNA,newmixesof
allelesarecreatedeachgenerationbytherecombiningprocessesof
sexualreproduction.Theallelesthatenhancesurvivalandreproduc-tionofthecarrierorganismsspreadthroughthepopulation,while
thosethatdonot,disappear.Chancemutationsarethera wmaterialof
evolution.Environmentalchallenge,decidingwhichmutantsand
theircombinationswillsurvive,isthenecessitythatmoldsusfurther
fro mthisproteangeneticclay.
Ifgivenenoughgenerations,mutationsandrecombinationcan
generateanearlyinfiniteamountofhereditaryvariationamongindi-vidualsinapopulation.Forexample,ifevenamerethousandgenes
outofthefiftythousandtoahundredthousandinthehumangenome
weretoexistintwoformsinthepopulation,thenumberofgenetic
combinationsconceivableis10
500
,morethanalltheatomsinthevisi-bleuniverse.Soexceptfo ridenticalsiblingstheprobabilitythatany
twohumanbeingsshareidenticalgenes,orhaveeversharedthem
throughoutthehistoryofthehominidline,isvanishinglysmall.
Witheachgenerationthechromosomesandgenesoftheparents
arescrambledtoproducenewmixes.Butthisperpetualshearingand
reconfigurationdoesnotofitsel fcauseevolution.Theconsistentguid-ingforceisnaturalselection.Genesthatconferhighersurvivaland
reproductivesuccessontheorganismsbearingthem,throughthepre-scribedtraitsofanatomy,physiology,andbehavior,increaseinthe
populationfromonegenerationtothenext.Thosethatdonot,de-crease.Similarly,populationsorevenentirespecieswithhighersur-vivalandreproductivesu

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1:

Ada kesenjangan dalam kain ini tidak diketahui lebarnya, dan banyak helai menulis itu sehalus
sutra laba-laba.Sintesis prediktif, tujuan akhir dari ilmu pengetahuan, yang masih
pada tahap awal, dan terutama di biologi.Namun saya pikir adil untuk mengatakan
bahwa cukup diketahui untuk membenarkan kepercayaan dalam prinsip universal
rasional consilience di seluruh semua ilmu-ilmu alam.
Jaringan jelas sekarang menyentuh tepi budaya itu sendiri.Itu
telah mencapai batas yang memisahkan ilmu-ilmu alam pada satu
sisi dari humaniora dan ilmu sosial kemanusiaan di sisi lain.
diberikan, untuk kebanyakan sarjana dua domain, sering disebut kebudayaan ilmiah dan sastra, masih memiliki pandangan ketetapan mengenai
mereka.Dari Apollonian hukum Roh Dionysian,prosa untuk puisi, kiri
kortikal hemisfer kanan, jalur antara dua domain dapat
mudah melintasi mundur, tapi tidak ada yang tahu Tampilkan untuk menerjemahkan
lidah dari satu ke yang lain.Bahkan kita harus mencoba?Saya percaya begitu,
dan untuk alasan: tujuannya penting dan dapat dicapai.
waktunya telah tiba untuk menilai kembali batas.
Bahkan jika bahwa persepsi diperdebatkan — dan itu akan — sedikit dapat menyangkal
pembagian antara dua budaya itu sumber aperennial kesalahpahaman dan konflik. "Polarisasi ini adalah semata-mata kerugian kepada kita all,"
FromGenestoCulture137
wroteC.P.Snowinhisdefining195 9essayThe TwoCulturesand
ScientificRevolution."Tousaspeople, andtooursociety.Itisatthe
sametimepracticalandintellectualandcreativeloss."
Thepolarizationpromotes, foronething, theperpetualrecycling
ofthenature-nurturecontroversy, spinningof fmostlysteriledebates
ongender, sexualpreferences, etnis, andhumannatureitself.
RootcauseoftheproblemisasobvioustodayasitwaswhenSnowru-minatedonitatChristCollegehightable:theoverspecializationof
theeducatedelite.Publicintellectuals, andtrailingclosebehindthem
themediaprofessionals,havebeentrainedalmostwithoutexception
inthesocialsciencesandhumanities.Theyconsiderhumannatureto
betheirprovinceandhavedifficultyconceivingtherelevanceofthe
naturalsciencestosocialbehaviorandpolicy.Naturalscientists,
whoseexpertiseisdicedintonarrowcompartmentswithlittleconnec-tiontohumanaffairs, areindeedillpreparedtoengagethesamesub-proyek turnkey.WhatdoesabiochemistknowoflegaltheoryandtheChina
perdagangan?Itisnotenoughtorepeattheoldnostrumthatallscholars, nat-uralandsocialscientistsandhumanistsalike, areanimatedbyacom-moncreativespirit.Theyareindeedcreativesiblings, buttheylacka
commonlanguage.
Thereisonlyonewaytounitethegreatbranchesoflearningand
endtheculturewars.Itistoviewtheboundarybetweenthescientific
andliteraryculturesnotasaterritoriallinebutasabroadandmostly
unexploredterrainawaitingcooperativeentryfro mbothsides.
Misunderstandingsarisefro mignoranceoftheterrain, notfroma
fundamentaldifferenceinmentality.Thetwoculturessharethefol-lowingchallenge.Weknowthatvirtuallyallofhumanbehavioris
transmittedbyculture.Wealsoknowthatbiologyhasanimportant
effectontheoriginofcultureandit stransmission.Thequestionre-mainingishowbiologyandcultureinteract,andinparticularhow
theyinteractacrossallsocietiestocreatethecommonalitiesofhu-mannature.Apa, infinalanalysis, joinsthedeep, mostlygenetichis-toryofthespeciesasawholetothemorerecentculturalhistoriesof
itu sfar-flungsocieties?Itu, inmyopinion, isthenuboftherelation-shipbetweenthetwocultures.Itcanbestatedasaproblemtobe
dipecahkan, thecentralproblemofthesocialsciencesandthehumanities,
andsimultaneouslyoneofthegreatremainingproblemsofthenatural
ilmu.
Atthepresenttimenoonehasasolution.Butinthesensethatno
138CONSILIENC E
onein184 2knewthetruecauseofevolutionandin195 2nooneknew
thenatureofthegeneticcode, thewaytosolvetheproblemmaylie
withinourgrasp.AFE wresearchers, andIamoneofthem, eventhink
theyknowtheapproximateformtheanswerwilltake.Fromdiverse
vantagepointsinbiology,Psikologi, andanthropology, theyhave
conceivedaprocesscalledgene-culturecoevolution.Inessence,
conceptionobserves, pertama, thattogeneticevolutionthehumanlineage
hasaddedtheparalleltrackofculturalevolution, dan, kedua, bahwa
twoformsofevolutionarelinked.Ibelievethemajorityofcontributors
tothetheoryduringthepasttwentyyearswouldagreetothefollowing
outlineofit sprinciples:
Cultureiscreatedbythecommunal pikiran, andeachmindinturnis
theproductofthegenetically structuredhuman otak.Inseverablylinked Genesandcul-turearetherefore.Butthe hubungan isflexible, toa de-greestill mostlyunmeasured.Thelinkageisalsotortuous:Genes
prescribeepigenetic aturan, yang theneuralpathwaysandregulari-tiesincognitivedevelopmentbywhichtheindividual pikiran assemblesit-diri.Themindgrowsfrombirthtodeath byabsorbingparts dari
existingculture availabletoit, withselectionsguidedthroughepigenetic
rulesinheritedbytheindividualbrain.
Tovisualizegene-culturecoevolutionmoreconcretely, mempertimbangkan
theexampleofsnakesanddreamserpents, whichIusedearlierto
arguetheplausibilityofcompleteconsilience.Theinnatetendencyto
reactwithbothfearandfascinationtowardsnakesistheepigenetic
aturan.Theculturedrawsonthatfearandfascinationtocreate
metaphorsandnarratives.Theprocessisthus:
Aspartofgene-culturecoevolution, cultureis reconstructedeach
generationcollectivelyin ofindividuals pikiran.Whenoraltradition
issupplementedby menulis andart, culturecangrowindefinitelylarge
anditcaneven skipgenerations.Butthe fundamentalbiasinginfluence
oftheepigeneticrules, beinggeneticand dihilangkan,staysconstant.
Hencetheprominenceofdreamserpentsinthelegendsandartof
theAmazonianshamansenrichestheircultureacrossgenerations
undertheguidanceoftheserpentineepigeneticrule.
Someindividualsinheritepigeneticrulesenablingthem tosurvive
andreproducebetterinthesurrounding environmentandculturethan
individualswholackthoserules, oratleastpossesstheminweakerva-mukan penyebab terjadinya kekerasan.Bythismeans, generasi overmany,themoresuccessfulepige-neticruleshavespreadthroughthepopulationalongwiththegenesthat
FromGenestoCulture139
prescribethe aturan.Sebagai konsekuensi thehuman spesies hasevolvedge-neticallybynaturalselectioninbehavior, justasithasintheanatomy
andphysiologyofthebrain.
Poisonoussnakeshavebeenanimportantsourceofmortalityinal-mostallsocietiesthroughouthumanevolution.Closeattentionto
them,enhancedbydreamserpentsandthesymbolsofculture, un-doubtedlyimprovesthechancesofsurvival.
Thenatureofthegeneticleashandtheroleofculturecannowbe
betterunderstood, asfollows.Certainculturalnormsalsosurviveandre-producebetterthancompetingnorms, causingcultureto evolveina
trackparallelto andusuallymuch fasterthangenetic evolusi.
Quickerthe kecepatan dari budaya evolution, longgar hubungan antara
genesandculture, althoughthe connectionisnevercompletelybroken.
Cultureallowsarapidadjustmenttochangesin theenvironment
throughfinely tunedadaptationsinventedand transmittedwithout cor-respondinglyprecisegeneticprescription.Di thisrespecthumanbeings
differfundamentallyfromallotheranimalspecies.
akhirnya, tocompletetheexampleofgene-culturecoevolution,
frequencywithwhichdreamserpentsandserpentsymbolsinhabita
cultureisseentobeadjustedtotheabundanceofrealpoisonous
snakesintheenvironment.Butowingtothepoweroffearandfascina-tiongiventhembytheepigeneticrule, theyeasilyacquireadditional
mythicmeaning; theyserveindifferentculturesvariouslyashealers,
utusan, setan, andgods.
Gen-culturecoevolutionisaspecialextensionofthemoregen-eralprocessofevolutionbynaturalselection.Biologistsgenerally
agreethattheprimaryforcebehindevolutioninhumanbeingsandall
otherorganismsisnaturalselection.ThatiswhatcreatedHomosapi-ensduringthefiveorsi xmillionyearsaftertheancestralhominid
speciessplitof ffro maprimitivechimpanzeelikestock.Evolutionby
naturalselectionisnotanidlehypothesis.Thegeneticvariationon
whichselectionactsiswellunderstoodinprincipleallthewaydown
tothemolecularlevel. "Evolutionwatchers "amongfieldbiologists
havemonitoredevolutionbynaturalselection, generationbygenera-tion, innaturalpopulationsofanimalsandplants.Theresultcanoften
bereproducedinthelaboratory, evenuptothecreationofnew
spesies, fo rexamplebyhybridizationandthebreedingofreproduc-tivelyisolatedstrains.Themannerinwhichtraitsofanatomy, physi-ology, andbehavioradaptorganismstotheirenvironmenthasbeen
140CONSILIENC E
massivelydocumented.Thefossi lhominidrecord, mondar-mandir mman-apesto
modernhumans, whilestilllackingmanydetails, issolidinmainout-line, withawellestablishedchronology
Insimplestterms, evolutionbynaturalselectionproceeds, sebagai the
FrenchbiologistJacquesMonodonceputit(rephrasingDemocritus),
bychanceandnecessity.Differentformsofthesamegene, calledal-leles, originatebymutations, whicharerandomchangesinthelong
thatcomposethegene sequencesofDNA (deoxyribonucleicacid).Di
additiontosuchpoint-oleh-pointscramblingoftheDNA, newmixesof
allelesarecreatedeachgenerationbytherecombiningprocessesof
sexualreproduction.Theallelesthatenhancesurvivalandreproduc-tionofthecarrierorganismsspreadthroughthepopulation, sementara
thosethatdonot, menghilang.Chancemutationsarethera wmaterialof
evolusi.Environmentalchallenge, decidingwhichmutantsand
theircombinationswillsurvive, isthenecessitythatmoldsusfurther
mondar-mandir mthisproteangeneticclay.
Ifgivenenoughgenerations, mutationsandrecombinationcan
generateanearlyinfiniteamountofhereditaryvariationamongindi-vidualsinapopulation.Forexample, ifevenamerethousandgenes
outofthefiftythousandtoahundredthousandinthehumangenome
weretoexistintwoformsinthepopulation, thenumberofgenetic
combinationsconceivableis10
500
, morethanalltheatomsinthevisi-bleuniverse.Soexceptfo ridenticalsiblingstheprobabilitythatany
twohumanbeingsshareidenticalgenes,orhaveeversharedthem
throughoutthehistoryofthehominidline, isvanishinglysmall.
Witheachgenerationthechromosomesandgenesoftheparents
arescrambledtoproducenewmixes.Butthisperpetualshearingand
reconfigurationdoesnotofitsel fcauseevolution.Theconsistentguid-ingforceisnaturalselection.Genesthatconferhighersurvivaland
reproductivesuccessontheorganismsbearingthem,throughthepre-scribedtraitsofanatomy,fisiologi, andbehavior, increaseinthe
populationfromonegenerationtothenext.Thosethatdonot, de-lipatan.Demikian pula, populationsorevenentirespecieswithhighersur-vivalandreproductivesu

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:

Ada kesenjangan dalam kain ini luas diketahui, dan banyak dari untaian menyusun itu adalah sebagai halus sebagai
sintesis silk.Predictive laba-laba, tujuan akhir dari ilmu pengetahuan, masih
dalam tahap awal, dan terutama jadi di biology.Yet saya pikir itu adil untuk mengatakan
cukup yang dikenal untuk membenarkan kepercayaan pada prinsip universal
pertepatan rasional di semua ilmu-ilmu alam.
Jaringan jelas sekarang menyentuh tepi budaya itu sendiri. Ini
telah mencapai batas yang memisahkan ilmu-ilmu alam di satu
sisi dari humaniora dan ilmu sosial humanistik di sisi lain.
Memang, banyak sarjana dua domain, biasa disebut budaya ilmiah dan sastra, masih memiliki tampilan permanen tentang
hukum them.From Apolonia semangat Dionysian, prosa puisi, meninggalkan
belahan kortikal untuk kanan, garis antara dua domain dapat
dengan mudah menyeberang bolak-balik, tapi tidak ada yang tahu menunjukkan menerjemahkan
lidah satu ke yang dari other.Should kita bahkan mencoba saya percaya begitu,?
dan untuk yang terbaik dari alasan: tujuannya adalah penting dan dapat dicapai.
Waktunya telah tiba untuk menilai kembali batas.
Bahkan jika persepsi yang diperdebatkan-dan akan-sedikit yang bisa menyangkal
bahwa pembagian antara dua budaya merupakan sumber aperennial kesalahpahaman dan konflik. "polarisasi ini kerugian semata-mata untuk kita semua, "
FromGenestoCulture137
wroteC.P.Snowinhisdefining195 9essayThe TwoCulturesand fmostlysteriledebates ongender, sexualpreferences, etnis, andhumannatureitself mbothsides.The misunderstandingsarisefro E onein184 2knewthetruecauseofevolutionandin195 2nooneknew thenatureofthegeneticcode, thewaytosolvetheproblemmaylie withinourgrasp.Afe sprinciples: pikiran Cultureiscreatedbythecommunal, andeachmindinturnis theproductofthegenetically structuredhuman brain.Genesandcul-turearetherefore inseverablylinked.Butthe linkage isflexible, toa de-greestill mostlyunmeasured.Thelinkageisalsotortuous: Gen aturan prescribeepigenetic, whichare theneuralpathwaysandregulari-tiesincognitivedevelopmentbywhichtheindividual pikiran assemblesit-self.Themindgrowsfrombirthtodeath byabsorbingparts ofthe existingculture reconstructedeach generationcollectivelyin pikiran ofindividuals.Whenoraltradition issupplementedby menulis andart, culturecangrowindefinitelylarge anditcaneven skipgenerations.Butthe fundamentalbiasinginfluence oftheepigeneticrules, beinggeneticand tosurvive andreproducebetterinthesurrounding rules.As konsekuensi spesies thehuman hasevolvedge-neticallybynaturalselectioninbehavior, causingcultureto evolveina trackparallelto andusuallymuch fasterthangenetic evolution.The quickerthe laju evolusi budaya, looser hubungan antara genesandculture, althoughthe connectionisnevercompletelybroken. Cultureallowsarapidadjustmenttochangesin theenvironment throughfinely tunedadaptationsinventedand transmittedwithout cor-respondinglyprecisegeneticprescription.In xmillionyearsaftertheancestralhominid speciessplitof ffro E massivelydocumented.Thefossi lhominidrecord, fro