or in combination contribute to causal ambiguity (Reed and Defillipi 1 terjemahan - or in combination contribute to causal ambiguity (Reed and Defillipi 1 Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

or in combination contribute to cau

or in combination contribute to causal ambiguity (Reed and Defillipi 1990): (1) Tacitness is defined as the implicit and non-codifiable accumulation of skills that result from learn¬ing by doing (Polanyi 1962); (2) Complexity results from the interrelationships between various skills and assets (Bar¬ney 1926b; Nelson and Winter 1982); and (3) Specificity en¬tails the transaction-specific skills and assets that are util¬ized in the production processes and provision of services for particular customers (Williamson 1985). Any of these can produce ambiguity regarding the firm's actions and out¬comes and in turn create barriers to imitation (Reed and De¬fillipi 1990).
Ambiguity over factors responsible for superior perfor-mance acts as a powerful barrier to imitation as well as a de¬terrent to resource mobility (Dierickx and Cool 1989). Re¬sources that cannot be traded either because (1) their prop¬erty rights are not well defined or (2) they are idiosyncratic to the firm and have no value outside it constitute immobile resources (Dierickx and Cool 1989). Furthermore, the com¬plexity of firms often makes identification of their key suc¬cess factors impossible. Also, treating key success factors separately may often be an inaccurate representation, be¬cause the interaction among the factors can be the cause of a business's success. Therefore, potential imitators may find it hard to develop an unambiguous list of factors respon¬sible for a business's success.
Uncertain imitability results when the creation of new products is inherently uncertain and causal ambiguity about the process of asset stock accumulation (the building of stocks of resources and skills) impedes imitation and/or mo¬bility of a firm's unique resources. Its relevance increases when complex products and administrative structures are in¬volved (Lippman and Rumelt 1982). The lack of a clear-cut causal explanation between the actions and performance of some large firms is supportive of the notion of uncertain im¬itability. Though economic theory suggests that the pres¬ence of excess profits in any industry can make markets con¬testable (Baumol, Panzar, and Willig 1982) and bring down industry profits to normal levels, the theory of uncertain im¬itability (Lippman and Rumelt 1982) suggests high profits may signal the presence of successful firms with difficult-to-imitate capabilities that impede entry attempts.
Resources/skills stock. The imitability of a business's re-source/skill stock are related to the characteristics of the pro¬cess by which they are accumulated. Dierickx and Cool (1989) identify three major characteristics: (1) time compres¬sion diseconomies, (2) resource/skill mass efficiencies, and (3) interconnectedness of resources/skills stock. Time com¬pression diseconomies refers to the accumulation of certain advantages to firms owning a resource/skill for a long pe¬riod of time (e.g., firm reputation for quality). A firm may have built a reputation for quality by following a consistent set of production, quality control, and other policies over time. Such sources of competitive advantage can be neither acquired nor imitated by competitors within a short period of time.
The presence of large amounts of existing stock of re-sources/skills facilitates further resource/skill accumulation. For example, firms that already have an existing stock of re¬search and development may often be in a better position to make further breakthroughs and add to their existing stock of knowledge than firms who have low initial levels of

know-how. The implication here is that when asset mass ef-ficiencies are critical, building stocks of resources/skills by firms that have initial low levels of stock can be difficult. Difficulties in "catching up" can be even greater when the asset accumulation process exhibits discontinuities; i.e., a critical mass is required (Dierickx and Cool 1989).
Interconnectedness of resources/skills acts as a barrier to imitation when some firms lack complementary re-sources/skills that are critical to competing in a product mar¬ket. For instance, a new entrant to a market with a product (of comparable quality to that of incumbents) encountering difficulties in distributing the product because of no es¬tablished dealer network would be at a competitive disadvantage.
Performance Outcomes
Competitive advantage can be expected to lead to superior marketplace performance (e.g., market share, customer sat-isfaction) and financial performance (e.g., return on invest-ment, shareholder wealth creation). Accounting ratios and market measures constitute two broad indicators of a busi-ness's financial performance. However, they have been crit-icized for their (1) inadequate handling of intangibles and (2) improper valuation of sources of competitive advantage (i.e., allocating historic and current costs to satisfy tax re-quirements [Day and Wensley 1988]). Financial perfor-mance measures characterized by a future orientation (e.g., shareholder value creation potential) though not entirely free of shortcomings, are generally viewed as more ap-propriate for evaluating the desirability of planned invest-ments in defensible positional advantages. However, a de-tailed discussion of the merits and shortcomings of these measures is beyond our scope here.7
Reinvestments in Resources and Skills
Because the barriers to imitation of a firm's skills and re-sources are prone to decay in the absence of adequate "main¬tenance" expenditure (Dierickx and Cool 1989), the main¬tenance of an SCA requires the constant monitoring of and reinvesting in the present sources of advantage, as well as in¬vesting in other potential sources of advantage.8 For exam¬ple, a business with a reputation for superior quality could experience an erosion in quality as a source of SCA if it fails to continue investing in processes that contributed to the business's reputation for quality. As Porter (1985, p.20) notes, a firm must offer "a moving target to its competi¬tors, by reinvesting in order to continually improve its position."
7See: McGuire and Schneeweis (1983) and Lubatkin and Shrieves (1986). Additionally, in the case of several resources and skills, their bene¬fits may be in the long terra and in some cases the benefits (such as fast in¬formation flow, understanding of market trends, fast procedures, and more effective customer service) may be difficult to quantify. In these cases, the use of standard hurdle rates may be inappropriate, and non-traditional cri¬teria may be required (Shank and Govindarajan 1992).
8 As evidenced by the links leading into and from the box labeled "Re¬investments in Resources and Skills" (Figure 1), there is an implicit time dimension in the proposed conceptual framework.
Sustainable Competitive Advantage / 87

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

Sources of Sustainable Competitive
Advantage In Service Industries:
Propositions
This section provides an overview of the skills and re-sources underlying a business's competitive positional ad-vantages and a number of propositions delineating the mod¬erating effects of the characteristics of services, service in¬dustries, and firms within industries on these sonrces. How¬ever, we present no formal discussion in reference to cer¬tain potential sources of competitive advantage listed in Fig¬ure 1 (superior skills in various functional areas and those re¬lating to innovation, quality, customer service, and implem¬entation) because their importance as determinants of supe¬rior performance are widely recognized, transcend goods and service industry boundaries, and have been extensively discussed in business literature.
Scale Effects
Given the decentralization of the service production process to a local level in many service industries, the potential for achieving a competitive cost advantage by exploiting econ¬omies of scale has traditionally been viewed as modest. Nev¬ertheless, opportunities for exploiting scale economies are significantly greater in equipment-based service industries than in people-based service industries. Service firms can also achieve economies of scale by centralizing service production facilities while decentralizing customer-contact facilities (Upah 1980) or centralizing certain critical (and/or equipment-intensive) activities and localizing less critical (and/or people-intensive) activities, as exemplified by clini¬cal laboratories performing some tests in dispersed local units and others involving expensive equipment and/or skilled personnel in regional centers (see Porter 1990). Op¬erating economies can also be realized through reconfigura¬tions such as replacing stand-alone with multi-unit motion picture theaters sharing a centralized projection room, ticket selling booth, and refreshment stand (see Thomas 1978). Also, as Quinn and Gagnon (1986) note, in a number of ser¬vice industries, the application of new technologies has al¬lowed firms to realize significant scale economies.
P : The greater the equipment intensity of a service industry, the greater the importance of economies of scale as a source of competitive cost advantage.
The inseparability of production and consumption of ser¬vices and the resultant inability to efficiently mass produce services at a central location often necessitates service busi¬nesses to make the service available at multiple sites. This in turn necessitates examining the implications of size on cost and differentiation advantages at the operating unit and firm level. Heskett (1987) notes that for service firms oper¬ating under a common identity over a wide area, scale econ¬omies often are more important at the firm than operating unit level. A manifestation of the relative size (of firms com¬peting in an industry) at the company level is the number of dispersed local units (either company owned or franchised) operating under a common corporate identity. All else equal, e
0/5000
Dari: -
Ke: -
Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1: [Salinan]
Disalin!
or in combination contribute to causal ambiguity (Reed and Defillipi 1990): (1) Tacitness is defined as the implicit and non-codifiable accumulation of skills that result from learn¬ing by doing (Polanyi 1962); (2) Complexity results from the interrelationships between various skills and assets (Bar¬ney 1926b; Nelson and Winter 1982); and (3) Specificity en¬tails the transaction-specific skills and assets that are util¬ized in the production processes and provision of services for particular customers (Williamson 1985). Any of these can produce ambiguity regarding the firm's actions and out¬comes and in turn create barriers to imitation (Reed and De¬fillipi 1990).Ambiguity over factors responsible for superior perfor-mance acts as a powerful barrier to imitation as well as a de¬terrent to resource mobility (Dierickx and Cool 1989). Re¬sources that cannot be traded either because (1) their prop¬erty rights are not well defined or (2) they are idiosyncratic to the firm and have no value outside it constitute immobile resources (Dierickx and Cool 1989). Furthermore, the com¬plexity of firms often makes identification of their key suc¬cess factors impossible. Also, treating key success factors separately may often be an inaccurate representation, be¬cause the interaction among the factors can be the cause of a business's success. Therefore, potential imitators may find it hard to develop an unambiguous list of factors respon¬sible for a business's success.Uncertain imitability results when the creation of new products is inherently uncertain and causal ambiguity about the process of asset stock accumulation (the building of stocks of resources and skills) impedes imitation and/or mo¬bility of a firm's unique resources. Its relevance increases when complex products and administrative structures are in¬volved (Lippman and Rumelt 1982). The lack of a clear-cut causal explanation between the actions and performance of some large firms is supportive of the notion of uncertain im¬itability. Though economic theory suggests that the pres¬ence of excess profits in any industry can make markets con¬testable (Baumol, Panzar, and Willig 1982) and bring down industry profits to normal levels, the theory of uncertain im¬itability (Lippman and Rumelt 1982) suggests high profits may signal the presence of successful firms with difficult-to-imitate capabilities that impede entry attempts.Resources/skills stock. The imitability of a business's re-source/skill stock are related to the characteristics of the pro¬cess by which they are accumulated. Dierickx and Cool (1989) identify three major characteristics: (1) time compres¬sion diseconomies, (2) resource/skill mass efficiencies, and (3) interconnectedness of resources/skills stock. Time com¬pression diseconomies refers to the accumulation of certain advantages to firms owning a resource/skill for a long pe¬riod of time (e.g., firm reputation for quality). A firm may have built a reputation for quality by following a consistent set of production, quality control, and other policies over time. Such sources of competitive advantage can be neither acquired nor imitated by competitors within a short period of time.The presence of large amounts of existing stock of re-sources/skills facilitates further resource/skill accumulation. For example, firms that already have an existing stock of re¬search and development may often be in a better position to make further breakthroughs and add to their existing stock of knowledge than firms who have low initial levels of

know-how. The implication here is that when asset mass ef-ficiencies are critical, building stocks of resources/skills by firms that have initial low levels of stock can be difficult. Difficulties in "catching up" can be even greater when the asset accumulation process exhibits discontinuities; i.e., a critical mass is required (Dierickx and Cool 1989).
Interconnectedness of resources/skills acts as a barrier to imitation when some firms lack complementary re-sources/skills that are critical to competing in a product mar¬ket. For instance, a new entrant to a market with a product (of comparable quality to that of incumbents) encountering difficulties in distributing the product because of no es¬tablished dealer network would be at a competitive disadvantage.
Performance Outcomes
Competitive advantage can be expected to lead to superior marketplace performance (e.g., market share, customer sat-isfaction) and financial performance (e.g., return on invest-ment, shareholder wealth creation). Accounting ratios and market measures constitute two broad indicators of a busi-ness's financial performance. However, they have been crit-icized for their (1) inadequate handling of intangibles and (2) improper valuation of sources of competitive advantage (i.e., allocating historic and current costs to satisfy tax re-quirements [Day and Wensley 1988]). Financial perfor-mance measures characterized by a future orientation (e.g., shareholder value creation potential) though not entirely free of shortcomings, are generally viewed as more ap-propriate for evaluating the desirability of planned invest-ments in defensible positional advantages. However, a de-tailed discussion of the merits and shortcomings of these measures is beyond our scope here.7
Reinvestments in Resources and Skills
Because the barriers to imitation of a firm's skills and re-sources are prone to decay in the absence of adequate "main¬tenance" expenditure (Dierickx and Cool 1989), the main¬tenance of an SCA requires the constant monitoring of and reinvesting in the present sources of advantage, as well as in¬vesting in other potential sources of advantage.8 For exam¬ple, a business with a reputation for superior quality could experience an erosion in quality as a source of SCA if it fails to continue investing in processes that contributed to the business's reputation for quality. As Porter (1985, p.20) notes, a firm must offer "a moving target to its competi¬tors, by reinvesting in order to continually improve its position."
7See: McGuire and Schneeweis (1983) and Lubatkin and Shrieves (1986). Additionally, in the case of several resources and skills, their bene¬fits may be in the long terra and in some cases the benefits (such as fast in¬formation flow, understanding of market trends, fast procedures, and more effective customer service) may be difficult to quantify. In these cases, the use of standard hurdle rates may be inappropriate, and non-traditional cri¬teria may be required (Shank and Govindarajan 1992).
8 As evidenced by the links leading into and from the box labeled "Re¬investments in Resources and Skills" (Figure 1), there is an implicit time dimension in the proposed conceptual framework.
Sustainable Competitive Advantage / 87

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

Sources of Sustainable Competitive
Advantage In Service Industries:
Propositions
This section provides an overview of the skills and re-sources underlying a business's competitive positional ad-vantages and a number of propositions delineating the mod¬erating effects of the characteristics of services, service in¬dustries, and firms within industries on these sonrces. How¬ever, we present no formal discussion in reference to cer¬tain potential sources of competitive advantage listed in Fig¬ure 1 (superior skills in various functional areas and those re¬lating to innovation, quality, customer service, and implem¬entation) because their importance as determinants of supe¬rior performance are widely recognized, transcend goods and service industry boundaries, and have been extensively discussed in business literature.
Scale Effects
Given the decentralization of the service production process to a local level in many service industries, the potential for achieving a competitive cost advantage by exploiting econ¬omies of scale has traditionally been viewed as modest. Nev¬ertheless, opportunities for exploiting scale economies are significantly greater in equipment-based service industries than in people-based service industries. Service firms can also achieve economies of scale by centralizing service production facilities while decentralizing customer-contact facilities (Upah 1980) or centralizing certain critical (and/or equipment-intensive) activities and localizing less critical (and/or people-intensive) activities, as exemplified by clini¬cal laboratories performing some tests in dispersed local units and others involving expensive equipment and/or skilled personnel in regional centers (see Porter 1990). Op¬erating economies can also be realized through reconfigura¬tions such as replacing stand-alone with multi-unit motion picture theaters sharing a centralized projection room, ticket selling booth, and refreshment stand (see Thomas 1978). Also, as Quinn and Gagnon (1986) note, in a number of ser¬vice industries, the application of new technologies has al¬lowed firms to realize significant scale economies.
P : The greater the equipment intensity of a service industry, the greater the importance of economies of scale as a source of competitive cost advantage.
The inseparability of production and consumption of ser¬vices and the resultant inability to efficiently mass produce services at a central location often necessitates service busi¬nesses to make the service available at multiple sites. This in turn necessitates examining the implications of size on cost and differentiation advantages at the operating unit and firm level. Heskett (1987) notes that for service firms oper¬ating under a common identity over a wide area, scale econ¬omies often are more important at the firm than operating unit level. A manifestation of the relative size (of firms com¬peting in an industry) at the company level is the number of dispersed local units (either company owned or franchised) operating under a common corporate identity. All else equal, e
Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:[Salinan]
Disalin!
atau dalam kombinasi berkontribusi kausal ambiguitas (Reed dan Defillipi 1990): (1) Tacitness didefinisikan sebagai akumulasi implisit dan non-codifiable keterampilan yang dihasilkan dari learn¬ing dengan melakukan (Polanyi 1962); (2) hasil Kompleksitas dari hubungan timbal balik antara berbagai keterampilan dan aset (Bar¬ney 1926b; Nelson dan musim dingin 1982); dan (3) Spesifisitas en¬tails keterampilan dan aset yang util¬ized dalam proses produksi dan penyediaan layanan bagi pelanggan tertentu (Williamson 1985) spesifik transaksi. Semua ini dapat menghasilkan ambiguitas mengenai tindakan perusahaan dan out¬comes dan pada gilirannya menciptakan hambatan untuk imitasi (Reed dan De¬fillipi 1990).
Ambiguitas lebih faktor yang bertanggung jawab untuk unggul tindakan perfor-Mance sebagai penghalang kuat untuk imitasi serta de¬terrent ke sumber daya mobilitas (Dierickx dan Cool 1989). Re¬sources yang tidak dapat diperdagangkan baik karena (1) hak prop¬erty mereka tidak didefinisikan dengan baik atau (2) mereka istimewa untuk perusahaan dan tidak memiliki nilai luar itu merupakan sumber bergerak (Dierickx dan Cool 1989). Selanjutnya, com¬plexity perusahaan sering membuat identifikasi suc¬cess utama mereka faktor mustahil. Juga, mengobati faktor kunci keberhasilan secara terpisah mungkin sering menjadi representasi akurat, be¬cause interaksi antara faktor-faktor yang dapat menjadi penyebab sukses bisnis. Oleh karena itu, peniru potensial mungkin merasa sulit untuk mengembangkan daftar ambigu faktor respon¬sible untuk sukses bisnis.
Hasil imitability Uncertain saat penciptaan produk baru secara inheren tidak pasti dan ambiguitas kausal tentang proses akumulasi saham aset (bangunan saham sumber daya dan keterampilan) menghambat imitasi dan / atau mo¬bility sumber daya perusahaan unik. Relevansinya meningkat ketika produk yang kompleks dan struktur administratif in¬volved (Lippman dan Rumelt 1982). Kurangnya penjelasan kausal yang jelas antara tindakan dan kinerja dari beberapa perusahaan besar adalah mendukung gagasan im¬itability pasti. Meskipun teori ekonomi menunjukkan bahwa pres¬ence keuntungan berlebih dalam industri apapun dapat membuat pasar con¬testable (Baumol, Panzar, dan Willig 1982) dan menurunkan keuntungan industri ke tingkat normal, teori im¬itability pasti (Lippman dan Rumelt 1982) menunjukkan keuntungan yang tinggi mungkin menandakan keberadaan perusahaan yang sukses dengan kemampuan yang sulit meniru yang menghambat upaya entri.
Sumber saham / keterampilan. The imitability saham re-sumber / keterampilan bisnis terkait dengan karakteristik pro¬cess dimana mereka akumulasi. Dierickx dan Cool (1989) mengidentifikasi tiga karakteristik utama: (1) diseconomies waktu compres¬sion, (2) efisiensi massa sumber daya / keterampilan, dan (3) keterkaitan saham sumber daya / keterampilan. Waktu com¬pression diseconomies mengacu pada akumulasi keuntungan tertentu untuk perusahaan yang memiliki sumber daya / keterampilan untuk pe¬riod lama (misalnya, reputasi perusahaan untuk kualitas). Sebuah perusahaan mungkin telah membangun reputasi untuk kualitas dengan mengikuti satu set konsisten produksi, kontrol kualitas, dan kebijakan lain dari waktu ke waktu. Sumber seperti keunggulan kompetitif dapat tidak diperoleh atau ditiru oleh pesaing dalam waktu singkat.
Kehadiran sejumlah besar stok yang ada re-sumber / keterampilan memfasilitasi lebih lanjut akumulasi sumber daya / keterampilan. Misalnya, perusahaan yang sudah memiliki stok yang ada dari re¬search dan pengembangan mungkin sering berada dalam posisi yang lebih baik untuk membuat terobosan lebih lanjut dan menambah saham mereka yang ada pengetahuan dari perusahaan yang memiliki tingkat awal yang rendah dari pengetahuan. Implikasinya di sini adalah bahwa ketika massa aset ef-ficiencies sangat penting, bangunan saham sumber daya / keterampilan oleh perusahaan yang memiliki kadar rendah awal saham bisa sulit. Kesulitan dalam "penangkapan" bahkan bisa lebih besar ketika proses akumulasi aset menunjukkan diskontinuitas; yaitu, massa kritis diperlukan (Dierickx dan Cool 1989). Kesalingterhubungan dari sumber / keterampilan bertindak sebagai penghalang untuk imitasi ketika beberapa perusahaan kurang melengkapi re-sumber / keterampilan yang sangat penting untuk bersaing dalam mar¬ket produk. Misalnya, pendatang baru ke pasar dengan produk (kualitas sebanding dengan mapan) menghadapi kesulitan dalam mendistribusikan produk karena tidak ada jaringan dealer es¬tablished akan pada kerugian kompetitif. Kinerja Luaran Keunggulan kompetitif dapat diharapkan menyebabkan kinerja pasar superior (misalnya, pangsa pasar, pelanggan duduk-isfaction) dan kinerja keuangan (misalnya, kembali pada investasi-ment, pemegang saham penciptaan kekayaan). Rasio akuntansi dan langkah-langkah pasar merupakan dua indikator luas kinerja keuangan busi-ness itu. Namun, mereka telah crit-icized untuk (1) penanganan yang tidak memadai mereka berwujud dan (2) penilaian yang tidak tepat sumber keunggulan kompetitif (yaitu, mengalokasikan biaya bersejarah dan saat ini untuk memenuhi pajak re-quirements [Day dan Wensley 1988]). Tindakan perfor-Mance keuangan ditandai dengan orientasi masa depan (misalnya, nilai pemegang saham potensial penciptaan) meskipun tidak sepenuhnya bebas dari kekurangan, umumnya dipandang sebagai lebih ap-propriate untuk mengevaluasi keinginan direncanakan berinvestasi-KASIH di keuntungan posisional dipertahankan. Namun, diskusi de-ekor dari kelebihan dan kekurangan dari tindakan ini adalah di luar lingkup kami here.7 reinvestments Sumber Daya dan Keterampilan Karena hambatan untuk meniru keterampilan perusahaan dan re-sumber rentan terhadap pembusukan dalam ketiadaan yang memadai " main¬tenance "pengeluaran (Dierickx dan Cool 1989), main¬tenance dari SCA memerlukan pemantauan konstan dan menginvestasikan kembali dalam sumber-sumber ini dari keuntungan, serta in¬vesting dalam sumber-sumber potensial lainnya dari advantage.8 Untuk exam¬ ple, bisnis dengan reputasi untuk kualitas unggul bisa mengalami erosi dalam kualitas sebagai sumber SCA jika gagal untuk terus berinvestasi dalam proses yang berkontribusi reputasi bisnis untuk kualitas. Sebagai Porter (1985, P.20) catatan, perusahaan harus menawarkan "target bergerak untuk competi¬tors nya, dengan menginvestasikan kembali dalam rangka untuk terus memperbaiki posisinya." 7See: McGuire dan Schneeweis (1983) dan Lubatkin dan Shrieves (1986 ). Selain itu, dalam kasus beberapa sumber daya dan keterampilan, bene¬fits mereka mungkin dalam terra panjang dan dalam beberapa kasus manfaat (seperti aliran cepat in¬formation, pemahaman tentang tren pasar, prosedur cepat, dan layanan pelanggan yang lebih efektif) mungkin sulit untuk diukur. Dalam kasus ini, penggunaan tarif rintangan standar mungkin tidak, dan cri¬teria non-tradisional mungkin diperlukan (Shank dan Govindarajan 1992). 8 Seperti yang dibuktikan oleh link yang mengarah ke dan dari kotak berlabel "Re¬investments di Resources dan Keterampilan "(Gambar 1), ada dimensi waktu yang tersirat dalam kerangka kerja konseptual yang diusulkan. Berkelanjutan Keunggulan Kompetitif / 87 Reproduksi dengan izin dari pemilik hak cipta. Reproduksi lanjut dilarang tanpa izin. Sumber Kompetitif Berkelanjutan Keunggulan Dalam Industri Jasa: Proposisi Bagian ini memberikan gambaran tentang keterampilan dan re-sumber yang mendasari kompetitif posisi iklan-vantages bisnis dan sejumlah proposisi menggambarkan efek mod¬erating karakteristik layanan, in¬dustries layanan, dan perusahaan dalam industri di sonrces ini. How¬ever, kami menyajikan tidak ada diskusi formal mengacu pada cer¬tain potensi sumber keunggulan kompetitif yang tercantum dalam Fig¬ure 1 (keterampilan unggul dalam berbagai area fungsional dan mereka re¬lating untuk inovasi, kualitas, layanan pelanggan, dan implem¬entation ) karena pentingnya mereka sebagai penentu kinerja supe¬rior diakui secara luas, melampaui batas-batas barang dan industri jasa, dan secara luas telah dibahas dalam literatur bisnis. Skala Efek Mengingat desentralisasi proses produksi pelayanan kepada tingkat lokal di banyak industri jasa, potensi untuk mencapai keunggulan biaya kompetitif dengan memanfaatkan econ¬omies dari skala secara tradisional dipandang sebagai sederhana. Nev¬ertheless, peluang untuk memanfaatkan skala ekonomi yang signifikan lebih besar dalam industri jasa berbasis peralatan daripada di industri jasa berbasis rakyat. Perusahaan jasa juga dapat mencapai skala ekonomi dengan memusatkan fasilitas produksi pelayanan sementara desentralisasi fasilitas pelanggan-kontak (Upah 1980) atau sentralisasi kritis (dan / atau peralatan-intensif) kegiatan tertentu dan lokalisasi kurang kritis (dan / atau orang-intensif) kegiatan, seperti yang dicontohkan oleh laboratorium clini¬cal melakukan beberapa tes di unit lokal tersebar dan lain-lain yang melibatkan peralatan mahal dan / atau tenaga terampil di pusat-pusat regional (lihat Porter 1990). Ekonomi Op¬erating juga dapat diwujudkan melalui reconfigura¬tions seperti mengganti berdiri sendiri dengan multi-unit teater film berbagi kamar proyeksi terpusat, penjualan tiket booth, dan penyegaran berdiri (lihat Thomas 1978). Juga, sebagai Quinn dan Gagnon (1986) catatan, di sejumlah industri ser¬vice, penerapan teknologi baru telah al¬lowed perusahaan untuk mewujudkan skala ekonomi yang signifikan. P: Semakin besar intensitas peralatan dari industri jasa, semakin besar pentingnya skala ekonomi sebagai sumber keunggulan biaya kompetitif. The ketidakterpisahan produksi dan konsumsi ser¬vices dan ketidakmampuan dihasilkan untuk efisien layanan memproduksi massal di lokasi pusat sering memerlukan busi¬nesses layanan untuk membuat layanan yang tersedia di beberapa situs. Hal ini pada gilirannya memerlukan memeriksa implikasi dari ukuran keunggulan biaya dan diferensiasi di unit operasi dan tingkat perusahaan. Heskett (1987) mencatat bahwa untuk perusahaan jasa oper¬ating bawah identitas bersama di wilayah yang luas, econ¬omies skala sering lebih penting di perusahaan dari operasi tingkat unit. Sebuah manifestasi dari ukuran relatif (perusahaan com¬peting dalam suatu industri) di tingkat perusahaan adalah jumlah unit lokal tersebar (baik perusahaan yang dimiliki atau waralaba) beroperasi di bawah identitas perusahaan umum. Semua hal lain tetap sama, e





















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