1. INTRODUCTIONThe current literature on organizational learning has n terjemahan - 1. INTRODUCTIONThe current literature on organizational learning has n Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

1. INTRODUCTIONThe current literatu

1. INTRODUCTION
The current literature on organizational learning has not reached its potential in influencing
strategic management. It is loosely connected, inconsistent, and based on several different
definitions of organizational learning. Most theorists focus on only one type of learning (e.g.
experimental, adaptive, vicarious, experiential) and do not build on the work of others to develop
a broader, more unified theory. The few attempts to incorporate a strategic perspective into
organizational learning literature have been mostly unsuccessful. For a review of this literature,
see Fiol and Lyles (1985), Hedberg (1981), Huber (1991), Levitt and March (1988), and
Shrivastava (1983).
Strategy scholars have not been any more successful in integrating organizational learning into
their research. When Mintzberg (1990) categorized strategy research into ten distinct "schools"
of approaches, he identified one of these as the "learning school" which describes strategy making
as an emergent process (p. 147):
According to this school, strategies emerge as strategists, sometimes individually but more often collectively,
come to know a context and their organization's capability of dealing with it; eventually the
organization converges on patterns of behavior that work.
The origin of the learning school can be traced back to two sources: March and Simon's book
Organizations (1958) and Lindblom's (1959) seminal article "The Science of 'Muddling
Through'." They suggested that decision making is not a neat, orderly, or controlled process, but a messy one of trying to cope with a very complicated world. However, it was not until the late
1970s and early 1980s that these observations took root among the strategy researchers
(Mintzberg, 1978; Quinn, 1980). Particularly, James Brian Quinn's book of 1980, Strategies for
Change: Logical lncrementalism, marked the onset of the learning school as a separate strategy
research tradition.
Although Quinn (1980) gave a dominant role to the top management in strategy formulation,
other learning school researchers have recognized that strategic initiatives often develop lower
down in the hierarchy and are then championed or given impetus by middle-level managers who
seek the approval of the senior executives (Bower, 1970; Burgelman, 1980). Th~s recognition
of multiple strategic actors is crucial for the understanding of how organizational learning and
strategy formulation interact.
The locus of strategy formulation in an organization shifts depending on the nature of the
external environment and the diffusion of the organizational knowledge. Mintzberg (1990)
argues that the learning school approach might be most common in adhocracies and professional
bureaucracies, and also in organizations of any type during periods of dramatic and unprecedented
change in the environment. These are examples of situations where top management does
not have adequate knowledge of the environment and the organizational capabilities to formulate
a well-articulated visionary strategy. Strategic management has to proceed by incrementally
probing the environment in search of viable strategic approaches. According to Quinn (1980),
this search is logical, and a distinguishable pattern of decisions emerges as strategy.
The learning school has made major strides in showing the importance of viewing strategy as
a decision making and learning process. However, there are two significant shortcomings to the
research in this area. First, the advocates of the learning school have not analyzed the different
types of organizational learning and the important interactions between them. They have focused
predominantly on the incremental adaptation process and have neglected other types of learning,
such as experimental, vicarious and experiential learning. They have also provided inadequate
attention to the difference between learning that changes the organization's frame and learning
within the established frame; and that these two forms of learning often occur simultaneously.
Moreover, the learning school literature has adopted a descriptive approach that tells us not so
much what organizations are supposed to do as what they actually do (Mintzberg, 1990). As a
result, the literature has been simplistic in its treatment of the organizational environment, and
has paid too little attention to the inter-group learning that forms the shared organizational knowledge
that is the foundation of the organization's strategic capability. To make the organizational
learning analysis more strategically relevant, in this paper we will divide the organization's environment
into strategically relevant entities, and analyze the important domains of intra-organizational
learning.
Second, since the incremental adaptation process described by the learning school can be problematic
for many organizations, the implication is that organizational learning is strategically
important only for certain types of organizations. For example, Mintzberg (1990) argued that the
learning school approach is appropriate for organizations with certain organizational configurations
and in certain environments. This premise may lead strategists to dangerously neglect the
importance of organizational learning when their organization or its environment does not fall
into the categories deemed appropriate for the learning school approach. Clearly, organizational
learning takes place in other types of organizations and environments, too. For example, Japanese
organizations are often very hierarchical and some of them operate in environments that are traditionally
considered to be fairly stable, such as automobiles. However, these same organizations
are also well-known for their external and internal learning activities; an important part of their strategies is the relentless gathering and analysis of external information, and the efficient sharing
of intra-organizational knowledge (Kotler, Fahey and Jatusripitak, 1985; Imai, Nonaka and
Takeuchi, 1985).
Thus, we argue that organizational learning is strategically important in all organizations and
environments, not just in adhocracies or professional bureaucracies. Organizational environments
consist of several sub-environments, all of which are unlikely to be "stable" or "predictable"
at the same time. Moreover, stable periods in modern industries are usually temporary,
and may end abruptly. There is ample evidence of organizational corpses that once thought their
organizational environment would remain stable. Even if an organization perceived its external
environment as requiring little new learning, intra-organizational learning must continue as the
organization concentrates its resources on improving its internal efficiency.
Mintzberg (1990) has made a clear distinction between the prescriptive and descriptive
schools of strategy researchers. The prescriptive scholars have seen the analysis of environment
and organizational capabilities as unproblematic, and the strategy formulation and implementation
process as an analytic two-step exercise. The descriptive scholars, in turn, have argued that
management is incapable of fully cognizing the complex and evolving environmental and organizational
capabilities, which results in a more problematic and intertwined strategy formulation
and implementation process (Mintzberg, 1990). We can reconcile some the differences between
the prescriptive and descriptive schools by developing a more general framework of organizational
learning. In the framework proposed in this paper, organizations are seen to oscillate
between a rational planning mode and an emergent, incremental learning mode of strategizing.
Organizational learning has strategic relevance during both periods; however, the type and locus
of learning differs. Thus, depending on the nature of the environment and the adequacy of the
organizational knowledge base, organizations either systematically plan their strategies and subsequently
implement them, or strategies emerge as a result of incremental learning, or most likely,
the organizations combine these two modes.
The main purpose of this paper is to develop a broader framework of organizational learning
which integrates the strategically important domains of external and internal learning. External
domains of learning include (a) customer learning, (b) competitor learning, (c) network learning,
and (d) institutional learning; while internal domains include (e) individual learning, (f)
intrafuctional learning, (g) interfunctional learning, and (h) multilevel learning. The proposed
framework underlines the systemic nature of organizational learning; it is the interaction between
the different learning domains that ultimately translates the domain-specific knowledge into
shared organizational knowledge. It is this shared knowledge that determines the strategic capability
and competitive advantage of organizations. The first part of the paper will introduce our
organizational learning framework and the second part will analyze its strategic implications.
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1. INTRODUCTIONThe current literature on organizational learning has not reached its potential in influencingstrategic management. It is loosely connected, inconsistent, and based on several differentdefinitions of organizational learning. Most theorists focus on only one type of learning (e.g.experimental, adaptive, vicarious, experiential) and do not build on the work of others to developa broader, more unified theory. The few attempts to incorporate a strategic perspective intoorganizational learning literature have been mostly unsuccessful. For a review of this literature,see Fiol and Lyles (1985), Hedberg (1981), Huber (1991), Levitt and March (1988), andShrivastava (1983).Strategy scholars have not been any more successful in integrating organizational learning intotheir research. When Mintzberg (1990) categorized strategy research into ten distinct "schools"of approaches, he identified one of these as the "learning school" which describes strategy makingas an emergent process (p. 147):According to this school, strategies emerge as strategists, sometimes individually but more often collectively,come to know a context and their organization's capability of dealing with it; eventually theorganization converges on patterns of behavior that work.The origin of the learning school can be traced back to two sources: March and Simon's bookOrganizations (1958) and Lindblom's (1959) seminal article "The Science of 'MuddlingThrough'." They suggested that decision making is not a neat, orderly, or controlled process, but a messy one of trying to cope with a very complicated world. However, it was not until the late1970s and early 1980s that these observations took root among the strategy researchers(Mintzberg, 1978; Quinn, 1980). Particularly, James Brian Quinn's book of 1980, Strategies forChange: Logical lncrementalism, marked the onset of the learning school as a separate strategyresearch tradition.Although Quinn (1980) gave a dominant role to the top management in strategy formulation,other learning school researchers have recognized that strategic initiatives often develop lowerdown in the hierarchy and are then championed or given impetus by middle-level managers whoseek the approval of the senior executives (Bower, 1970; Burgelman, 1980). Th~s recognitionof multiple strategic actors is crucial for the understanding of how organizational learning andstrategy formulation interact.The locus of strategy formulation in an organization shifts depending on the nature of theexternal environment and the diffusion of the organizational knowledge. Mintzberg (1990)argues that the learning school approach might be most common in adhocracies and professionalbureaucracies, and also in organizations of any type during periods of dramatic and unprecedentedchange in the environment. These are examples of situations where top management doesnot have adequate knowledge of the environment and the organizational capabilities to formulatea well-articulated visionary strategy. Strategic management has to proceed by incrementallyprobing the environment in search of viable strategic approaches. According to Quinn (1980),this search is logical, and a distinguishable pattern of decisions emerges as strategy.The learning school has made major strides in showing the importance of viewing strategy asa decision making and learning process. However, there are two significant shortcomings to theresearch in this area. First, the advocates of the learning school have not analyzed the differenttypes of organizational learning and the important interactions between them. They have focusedpredominantly on the incremental adaptation process and have neglected other types of learning,such as experimental, vicarious and experiential learning. They have also provided inadequateattention to the difference between learning that changes the organization's frame and learningwithin the established frame; and that these two forms of learning often occur simultaneously.Moreover, the learning school literature has adopted a descriptive approach that tells us not somuch what organizations are supposed to do as what they actually do (Mintzberg, 1990). As aresult, the literature has been simplistic in its treatment of the organizational environment, andhas paid too little attention to the inter-group learning that forms the shared organizational knowledgethat is the foundation of the organization's strategic capability. To make the organizationallearning analysis more strategically relevant, in this paper we will divide the organization's environmentinto strategically relevant entities, and analyze the important domains of intra-organizationallearning.Second, since the incremental adaptation process described by the learning school can be problematicfor many organizations, the implication is that organizational learning is strategicallyimportant only for certain types of organizations. For example, Mintzberg (1990) argued that thelearning school approach is appropriate for organizations with certain organizational configurationsand in certain environments. This premise may lead strategists to dangerously neglect theimportance of organizational learning when their organization or its environment does not fallinto the categories deemed appropriate for the learning school approach. Clearly, organizationallearning takes place in other types of organizations and environments, too. For example, Japaneseorganizations are often very hierarchical and some of them operate in environments that are traditionallyconsidered to be fairly stable, such as automobiles. However, these same organizationsare also well-known for their external and internal learning activities; an important part of their strategies is the relentless gathering and analysis of external information, and the efficient sharingof intra-organizational knowledge (Kotler, Fahey and Jatusripitak, 1985; Imai, Nonaka andTakeuchi, 1985).Thus, we argue that organizational learning is strategically important in all organizations andenvironments, not just in adhocracies or professional bureaucracies. Organizational environmentsconsist of several sub-environments, all of which are unlikely to be "stable" or "predictable"at the same time. Moreover, stable periods in modern industries are usually temporary,and may end abruptly. There is ample evidence of organizational corpses that once thought theirorganizational environment would remain stable. Even if an organization perceived its externalenvironment as requiring little new learning, intra-organizational learning must continue as theorganization concentrates its resources on improving its internal efficiency.Mintzberg (1990) has made a clear distinction between the prescriptive and descriptiveschools of strategy researchers. The prescriptive scholars have seen the analysis of environmentand organizational capabilities as unproblematic, and the strategy formulation and implementationprocess as an analytic two-step exercise. The descriptive scholars, in turn, have argued thatmanagement is incapable of fully cognizing the complex and evolving environmental and organizationalcapabilities, which results in a more problematic and intertwined strategy formulationand implementation process (Mintzberg, 1990). We can reconcile some the differences betweenthe prescriptive and descriptive schools by developing a more general framework of organizationallearning. In the framework proposed in this paper, organizations are seen to oscillatebetween a rational planning mode and an emergent, incremental learning mode of strategizing.Organizational learning has strategic relevance during both periods; however, the type and locusof learning differs. Thus, depending on the nature of the environment and the adequacy of theorganizational knowledge base, organizations either systematically plan their strategies and subsequentlyimplement them, or strategies emerge as a result of incremental learning, or most likely,the organizations combine these two modes.The main purpose of this paper is to develop a broader framework of organizational learningwhich integrates the strategically important domains of external and internal learning. Externaldomains of learning include (a) customer learning, (b) competitor learning, (c) network learning,and (d) institutional learning; while internal domains include (e) individual learning, (f)intrafuctional learning, (g) interfunctional learning, and (h) multilevel learning. The proposedframework underlines the systemic nature of organizational learning; it is the interaction betweenthe different learning domains that ultimately translates the domain-specific knowledge intoshared organizational knowledge. It is this shared knowledge that determines the strategic capabilityand competitive advantage of organizations. The first part of the paper will introduce ourorganizational learning framework and the second part will analyze its strategic implications.
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1. PENDAHULUAN
Literatur saat ini pada organisasi belajar belum mencapai potensinya dalam mempengaruhi
manajemen strategis. Hal ini longgar terhubung, tidak konsisten, dan berdasarkan beberapa berbeda
definisi organisasi belajar. Kebanyakan teori fokus pada hanya satu jenis belajar (misalnya
percobaan, adaptif, perwakilan, pengalaman) dan tidak membangun karya orang lain untuk mengembangkan
lebih luas, teori yang lebih terpadu. Beberapa upaya untuk menggabungkan perspektif strategis dalam
literatur pembelajaran organisasi telah sebagian besar tidak berhasil. Untuk tinjauan literatur ini,
lihat Fiol dan Lyles (1985), Hedberg (1981), Huber (1991), Levitt dan Maret (1988), dan
Shrivastava (1983).
Strategi ulama belum lagi berhasil dalam mengintegrasikan pembelajaran organisasi dalam
penelitian mereka. Ketika Mintzberg (1990) dikategorikan penelitian strategi menjadi sepuluh yang berbeda "sekolah"
pendekatan, ia mengidentifikasi salah satu dari ini sebagai "sekolah belajar" yang menggambarkan pembuatan strategi
sebagai proses muncul (p 147.):
Menurut sekolah ini, strategi muncul sebagai strategi, kadang-kadang secara individual tetapi lebih sering kolektif,
datang untuk mengetahui konteks dan kemampuan organisasi mereka berurusan dengan itu; akhirnya
organisasi menyatu pada pola perilaku yang bekerja.
Asal sekolah pembelajaran dapat ditelusuri kembali ke dua sumber: Maret dan buku Simon
"The Science of 'Muddling Organisasi (1958) dan Lindblom (1959) mani
artikel. Melalui'" Mereka menyarankan bahwa pengambilan keputusan tidak rapi, teratur, atau proses dikendalikan, tapi berantakan salah satu mencoba untuk mengatasi dengan dunia yang sangat rumit. Namun, itu tidak sampai akhir
1970-an dan awal 1980-an bahwa pengamatan ini berakar di antara peneliti strategi
(Mintzberg, 1978; Quinn, 1980). Khususnya, buku James Brian Quinn 1980, Strategi untuk
Perubahan: lncrementalism logis, menandai awal dari sekolah pembelajaran sebagai strategi yang
terpisah. Tradisi penelitian
Meskipun Quinn (1980) memberikan peran dominan kepada manajemen puncak dalam perumusan strategi,
sekolah belajar lainnya peneliti telah mengakui bahwa inisiatif strategis sering mengembangkan lebih rendah
turun dalam hirarki dan kemudian diperjuangkan atau diberikan dorongan oleh manajer tingkat menengah yang
mencari persetujuan dari eksekutif senior (Bower, 1970; Burgelman, 1980). Pengakuan Th ~ s
dari beberapa aktor strategis adalah penting untuk memahami bagaimana pembelajaran organisasi dan
perumusan strategi berinteraksi.
Lokus perumusan strategi dalam pergeseran organisasi tergantung pada sifat dari
lingkungan eksternal dan difusi pengetahuan organisasi. Mintzberg (1990)
berpendapat bahwa pendekatan pembelajaran sekolah mungkin yang paling umum di adhocracies dan profesional
birokrasi, dan juga dalam organisasi dari semua jenis selama periode dramatis dan belum pernah terjadi sebelumnya
perubahan dalam lingkungan. Ini adalah contoh dari situasi di mana manajemen puncak tidak
tidak memiliki pengetahuan yang memadai tentang lingkungan dan kemampuan organisasi untuk merumuskan
strategi visioner yang diartikulasikan. Manajemen strategis harus melanjutkan dengan bertahap
menyelidiki lingkungan mencari pendekatan strategis yang layak. Menurut Quinn (1980),
pencarian ini adalah logis, dan pola dibedakan dari keputusan muncul sebagai strategi.
Sekolah pembelajaran telah membuat langkah besar dalam menunjukkan pentingnya melihat strategi sebagai
suatu pengambilan keputusan dan proses belajar. Namun, ada dua kekurangan yang signifikan terhadap
penelitian di bidang ini. Pertama, para pendukung sekolah pembelajaran belum menganalisis berbagai
jenis pembelajaran organisasi dan interaksi penting antara mereka. Mereka telah berfokus
terutama pada proses adaptasi tambahan dan telah mengabaikan jenis lain dari pembelajaran,
seperti eksperimen, perwakilan dan pengalaman belajar. Mereka juga telah disediakan tidak memadai
perhatian pada perbedaan antara pembelajaran yang mengubah frame dan belajar organisasi
dalam bingkai ditetapkan; dan bahwa kedua bentuk pembelajaran sering terjadi secara bersamaan.
Selain itu, literatur sekolah pembelajaran telah mengadopsi pendekatan deskriptif yang memberitahu kita tidak begitu
banyak apa organisasi yang seharusnya dilakukan seperti apa yang sebenarnya mereka lakukan (Mintzberg, 1990). Sebagai
hasilnya, literatur telah sederhana dalam memperlakukan lingkungan organisasi, dan
telah membayar terlalu sedikit perhatian pada pembelajaran antar kelompok yang membentuk pengetahuan organisasi bersama
yang merupakan dasar dari kemampuan strategis organisasi. Untuk membuat organisasi
analisis belajar yang lebih strategis yang relevan, dalam makalah ini kami akan membagi lingkungan organisasi
menjadi entitas strategis yang relevan, dan menganalisis domain penting dari intra-organisasi
pembelajaran.
Kedua, karena proses adaptasi tambahan dijelaskan oleh sekolah pembelajaran dapat menjadi masalah
bagi banyak organisasi, implikasinya adalah bahwa organisasi belajar adalah strategis
penting hanya untuk jenis tertentu organisasi. Sebagai contoh, Mintzberg (1990) berpendapat bahwa
pendekatan pembelajaran sekolah sesuai untuk organisasi dengan konfigurasi organisasi tertentu
dan dalam lingkungan tertentu. Premis ini dapat menyebabkan strategi untuk berbahaya mengabaikan
pentingnya pembelajaran organisasi ketika organisasi mereka atau lingkungannya tidak jatuh
ke dalam kategori dianggap tepat untuk pendekatan sekolah belajar. Jelas, organisasi
pembelajaran berlangsung di jenis-jenis organisasi dan lingkungan, juga. Sebagai contoh, Jepang
organisasi seringkali sangat hirarkis dan beberapa dari mereka beroperasi di lingkungan yang secara tradisional
dianggap cukup stabil, seperti mobil. Namun, organisasi-organisasi yang sama
juga terkenal untuk kegiatan belajar eksternal dan internal mereka; merupakan bagian penting dari strategi mereka adalah pertemuan tanpa henti dan analisis informasi eksternal, dan berbagi efisien
pengetahuan intra-organisasi (Kotler, Fahey dan Jatusripitak, 1985; Imai, Nonaka dan
Takeuchi, 1985).
Dengan demikian, kami berpendapat bahwa pembelajaran organisasi yang strategis dan penting di semua organisasi dan
lingkungan, bukan hanya di adhocracies atau birokrasi profesional. Lingkungan organisasi
terdiri dari beberapa sub-lingkungan, yang semuanya tidak mungkin "stabil" atau "diprediksi"
pada waktu yang sama. Selain itu, periode stabil di industri modern biasanya bersifat sementara,
dan mungkin berakhir tiba-tiba. Ada banyak bukti dari mayat organisasi yang pernah berpikir mereka
lingkungan organisasi akan tetap stabil. Bahkan jika sebuah organisasi yang dirasakan eksternal
lingkungan sebagai membutuhkan sedikit pembelajaran baru, belajar intra-organisasi harus terus sebagai
organisasi berkonsentrasi sumber daya pada peningkatan efisiensi internal.
Mintzberg (1990) telah membuat perbedaan yang jelas antara preskriptif dan deskriptif
sekolah peneliti strategi . Para ulama preskriptif telah melihat analisis lingkungan
dan kemampuan organisasi sebagai bermasalah, dan perumusan strategi dan implementasi
proses sebagai latihan dua langkah analitik. Para ulama deskriptif, pada gilirannya, berpendapat bahwa
manajemen tidak mampu sepenuhnya mengetahu yang kompleks dan berkembang lingkungan dan organisasi
kemampuan, yang menghasilkan formulasi strategi yang lebih bermasalah dan terjalin
dan pelaksanaan proses (Mintzberg, 1990). Kita bisa mendamaikan beberapa perbedaan antara
sekolah preskriptif dan deskriptif dengan mengembangkan kerangka yang lebih umum dari organisasi
pembelajaran. Dalam kerangka yang diusulkan dalam makalah ini, organisasi terlihat berosilasi
antara modus perencanaan rasional dan muncul, modus belajar tambahan dari strategi.
Organisasi belajar memiliki relevansi strategis selama dua periode; Namun, jenis dan lokus
pembelajaran berbeda. Dengan demikian, tergantung pada sifat dari lingkungan dan kecukupan
basis pengetahuan organisasi, organisasi baik secara sistematis merencanakan strategi mereka dan kemudian
menerapkannya, atau strategi muncul sebagai hasil belajar tambahan, atau kemungkinan besar,
organisasi menggabungkan kedua mode.
Tujuan utama dari makalah ini adalah untuk mengembangkan kerangka yang lebih luas dari pembelajaran organisasi
yang mengintegrasikan domain strategis penting dari pembelajaran eksternal dan internal. Eksternal
domain pembelajaran meliputi (a) belajar pelanggan, (b) belajar pesaing, (c) belajar jaringan,
dan (d) pembelajaran institusional; sementara domain internal meliputi (e) belajar individu, (f)
belajar intrafuctional, (g) belajar interfunctional, dan (h) belajar bertingkat. Yang diusulkan
kerangka menggarisbawahi sifat sistemik pembelajaran organisasi; itu adalah interaksi antara
domain belajar yang berbeda yang pada akhirnya menerjemahkan domain-spesifik pengetahuan ke dalam
pengetahuan organisasi bersama. Ini adalah pengetahuan bersama yang menentukan kemampuan strategis
dan keunggulan kompetitif organisasi. Bagian pertama dari kertas akan memperkenalkan kami
kerangka pembelajaran organisasi dan bagian kedua akan menganalisis implikasi strategis.
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