The above argument in no way justifies the transfer of polluting indus terjemahan - The above argument in no way justifies the transfer of polluting indus Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

The above argument in no way justif

The above argument in no way justifies the transfer of polluting industries or the shipment of
hazardous waste from developed to developing countries. In the case of direct foreign investment, environmental standards or charges are a relatively minor factor by comparison to access to new markets and to low-cost labor and material. Moreover, the environmental standards of developed countries are embodied in the capital and technology of the industry that moves to a developing country. Furthermore, the liability laws of the country of origin may apply and exported products must reflect the environmental standards of the trading partners. Shipment of hazardous waste is not justified because of the asymmetry of information regarding its true nature and potential risks between the shipper and receiver and because the receiver (developing country) lacks the knowledge and technology to treat and dispose of the waste safely. Furthermore, because of the low or zero assimilative capacity of the environment for hazardous waste, and the risk of leakage, spill, or dumping during transport, hazardous and toxic waste is best handled at its place of origin. In light of the uncertainty and asymmetry of information, treatment and disposal at the source are required for full internalization of the externality and application of the polluter pays principle.
Limited Tax Revenues
Tax revenues in developing countries are usually severely constrained by a narrow tax base, low
incomes, and limited tax collecting capacity. As a result of limited revenues and major infrastructural expenditures, developing countries tend to run sizable budget deficits. Hence, they can ill afford the costs of a large environmental bureaucracy. As a result, their monitoring and enforcement budgets are very limited and their infrastructure for collection treatment and disposal of waste grossly inadequate. At the same time, they face severe administrative and human resource constraints. Given these constraints, the opportunity cost of resources necessary to implement, monitor, and enforce end-of-the-pipe command and control regulations are significantly higher than those in developed countries. The limited experience with administrative regulations and the inadequate information available for setting standards may lead to overly ambitious or unenforceable regulations. In contrast, economic instruments, if properly selected, can have low enforcement costs and generate significant government revenues. In contrast to command and control regulations, which often lead to increases in a developing country's already excessive dependence on narrowly-based, highly distortionary taxes, economic instruments are corrective taxes that can lower this dependence by serving as alternative sources of revenue. The choice of specific economic instruments is significant in light of developing countries limited administrative and enforcement capability. For example, product taxes that use existing administrative structures may be preferable to emission charges or tradeable permits that require new collection mechanisms or additional administrative arrangements. Since product taxes are indirect instruments, they are not as efficient as pollution taxes, which directly attack the externality, the right instrument is determined by the balancing of the administrative cost savings against the efficiency losses. Lowincome
countries may thus opt for product taxes while middle income countries may choose pollution
charges or tradeable permits on account of greater administrative and charge collection capacity. Refundable deposits and performance bonds are also easily administered instruments, but may not be equally suited to the resource endowment of poor countries. The collection and return of residuals and waste is usually a labor-intensive activity, well-suited to the labor-surplus conditions of many poor countries, while the posting of a bond requires substantial capital which is usually scarce and costly in developing countries but more easily available and less costly in middle-income and newly industrializing economies.
Legal, Institutional, and Cultural Constraints
Where legal institutions are weak or not well developed, as is the case in many developing countries, instruments that rely on legal action for enforcement are unlikely to be effective. Examples include command and control regulations such as effluent standards or mandated technology that provides for fines, prosecution, closure, and imprisonment in case of non-compliance. Another class of instruments difficult to enforce under these circumstances is legal liability systems, used extensively in the United States. Moreover, because of a long backlog of cases in the courts of most countries, the threat of court action does not act as a deterrent or compliance incentive.
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Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1: [Salinan]
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Argumen di atas tidak membenarkan pemindahan polusi industri atau pengirimanlimbah berbahaya dari dikembangkan untuk negara-negara berkembang. Dalam hal investasi langsung Asing, standar lingkungan atau biaya akan menjadi faktor yang relatif kecil dibandingkan dengan akses ke pasar baru dan biaya rendah tenaga kerja dan bahan. Selain itu, standar lingkungan negara-negara maju diwujudkan dalam modal dan teknologi industri yang bergerak ke negara berkembang. Selain itu, tanggung jawab hukum negara asal mungkin berlaku dan produk yang diekspor harus mencerminkan standar lingkungan mitra dagang. Pengiriman limbah berbahaya tidak dibenarkan karena asimetri informasi tentang sifat dan potensi risiko antara pengirim dan Penerima dan karena Penerima (negara berkembang) tidak memiliki pengetahuan dan teknologi untuk mengobati dan membuang limbah aman. Selain itu, karena rendah atau nol kapasitas assimilative lingkungan untuk limbah berbahaya, dan resiko kebocoran, tumpahan, atau dumping selama transportasi, limbah berbahaya dan beracun yang terbaik adalah ditangani di asal. Mengingat ketidakpastian dan asimetri informasi, pengolahan dan pembuangan di sumber yang diperlukan untuk penuh internalisasi eksternalitas dan penerapan pencemar membayar prinsip.Pendapatan pajak terbatasPendapatan pajak di negara berkembang biasanya sangat dibatasi oleh dasar sempit pajak, rendahpendapatan dan pajak terbatas mengumpulkan kapasitas. Terbatas pendapatan dan pengeluaran infrastruktur utama, negara-negara berkembang cenderung menjalankan defisit anggaran yang cukup besar. Oleh karena itu, mereka sakit bisa membeli biaya lingkungan birokrasi yang besar. Akibatnya, pemantauan dan penegakan mereka anggaran sangat terbatas dan infrastruktur mereka untuk koleksi pengolahan dan pembuangan limbah yang sangat tidak memadai. Pada saat yang sama, mereka menghadapi kendala sumber daya manusia dan administratif yang parah. Mengingat kendala, opportunity cost atas sumber daya yang diperlukan untuk menerapkan, memantau, dan menegakkan perintah akhir pipa dan peraturan kontrol secara signifikan lebih tinggi daripada di negara-negara berkembang. Pengalaman yang terbatas dengan peraturan administrasi dan tersedia untuk menetapkan standar informasi yang memadai dapat mengakibatkan peraturan terlalu ambisius atau tidak dapat dilaksanakan. Sebaliknya, ekonomi instrumen, jika dipilih dengan baik, dapat memiliki biaya rendah penegakan dan menghasilkan pendapatan pemerintah yang signifikan. Berbeda dengan peraturan komando dan kontrol, yang sering menyebabkan meningkat di negara berkembang sudah berlebihan ketergantungan pada pajak berbasis sempit, sangat distortionary, instrumen ekonomi adalah pajak korektif yang dapat menurunkan ketergantungan ini dengan melayani sebagai sumber pendapatan alternatif. Pilihan instrumen ekonomi tertentu signifikan dalam negara-negara berkembang terbatas administrasi dan kemampuan penegakan. Misalnya, produk pajak yang menggunakan struktur administratif yang ada mungkin lebih baik untuk biaya emisi atau tradeable izin yang memerlukan mekanisme koleksi baru atau tambahan pengaturan administrasi. Karena produk pajak tidak langsung instrumen, mereka tidak sebagai efisien sebagai polusi pajak, yang secara langsung menyerang eksternalitas, instrumen yang tepat ditentukan oleh menyeimbangkan penghematan biaya administratif terhadap kerugian efisiensi. Lowincomenegara-negara dengan demikian dapat memilih untuk produk pajak sementara negara berpendapatan menengah dapat memilih polusibiaya atau tradeable izin pada rekening lebih besar administrasi dan biaya koleksi kapasitas. Deposit yang dapat dikembalikan dan kinerja Obligasi juga mudah dikelola instrumen, tetapi mungkin tidak sama-sama cocok untuk abadi sumber daya negara-negara miskin. Pengumpulan dan kembalinya residu dan limbah ini biasanya kegiatan padat karya, cocok untuk kondisi kelebihan tenaga kerja yang banyak negara-negara miskin, sementara posting suatu Obligasi membutuhkan modal yang besar yang biasanya langka dan mahal di negara berkembang, tetapi lebih mudah tersedia dan kurang mahal di negara-negara berpenghasilan menengah dan industri baru.Kendala hukum, kelembagaan dan budayaMana institusi hukum lemah atau tidak berkembang dengan baik, seperti halnya di banyak negara berkembang, instrumen yang bergantung pada tindakan hukum penegakan tidak mungkin untuk menjadi efektif. Contoh termasuk peraturan komando dan kontrol seperti limbah standar atau mandat teknologi yang menyediakan denda, penuntutan, penutupan dan penjara dalam hal non-kepatuhan. Kelas lain instrumen sulit untuk menegakkan dalam keadaan ini adalah tanggung jawab hukum sistem, yang digunakan secara luas di Amerika Serikat. Selain itu, karena panjang kasus di pengadilan dari sebagian besar negara, ancaman tindakan pengadilan tidak bertindak sebagai insentif yang penghalang atau kepatuhan.
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Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:[Salinan]
Disalin!
The above argument in no way justifies the transfer of polluting industries or the shipment of
hazardous waste from developed to developing countries. In the case of direct foreign investment, environmental standards or charges are a relatively minor factor by comparison to access to new markets and to low-cost labor and material. Moreover, the environmental standards of developed countries are embodied in the capital and technology of the industry that moves to a developing country. Furthermore, the liability laws of the country of origin may apply and exported products must reflect the environmental standards of the trading partners. Shipment of hazardous waste is not justified because of the asymmetry of information regarding its true nature and potential risks between the shipper and receiver and because the receiver (developing country) lacks the knowledge and technology to treat and dispose of the waste safely. Furthermore, because of the low or zero assimilative capacity of the environment for hazardous waste, and the risk of leakage, spill, or dumping during transport, hazardous and toxic waste is best handled at its place of origin. In light of the uncertainty and asymmetry of information, treatment and disposal at the source are required for full internalization of the externality and application of the polluter pays principle.
Limited Tax Revenues
Tax revenues in developing countries are usually severely constrained by a narrow tax base, low
incomes, and limited tax collecting capacity. As a result of limited revenues and major infrastructural expenditures, developing countries tend to run sizable budget deficits. Hence, they can ill afford the costs of a large environmental bureaucracy. As a result, their monitoring and enforcement budgets are very limited and their infrastructure for collection treatment and disposal of waste grossly inadequate. At the same time, they face severe administrative and human resource constraints. Given these constraints, the opportunity cost of resources necessary to implement, monitor, and enforce end-of-the-pipe command and control regulations are significantly higher than those in developed countries. The limited experience with administrative regulations and the inadequate information available for setting standards may lead to overly ambitious or unenforceable regulations. In contrast, economic instruments, if properly selected, can have low enforcement costs and generate significant government revenues. In contrast to command and control regulations, which often lead to increases in a developing country's already excessive dependence on narrowly-based, highly distortionary taxes, economic instruments are corrective taxes that can lower this dependence by serving as alternative sources of revenue. The choice of specific economic instruments is significant in light of developing countries limited administrative and enforcement capability. For example, product taxes that use existing administrative structures may be preferable to emission charges or tradeable permits that require new collection mechanisms or additional administrative arrangements. Since product taxes are indirect instruments, they are not as efficient as pollution taxes, which directly attack the externality, the right instrument is determined by the balancing of the administrative cost savings against the efficiency losses. Lowincome
countries may thus opt for product taxes while middle income countries may choose pollution
charges or tradeable permits on account of greater administrative and charge collection capacity. Refundable deposits and performance bonds are also easily administered instruments, but may not be equally suited to the resource endowment of poor countries. The collection and return of residuals and waste is usually a labor-intensive activity, well-suited to the labor-surplus conditions of many poor countries, while the posting of a bond requires substantial capital which is usually scarce and costly in developing countries but more easily available and less costly in middle-income and newly industrializing economies.
Legal, Institutional, and Cultural Constraints
Where legal institutions are weak or not well developed, as is the case in many developing countries, instruments that rely on legal action for enforcement are unlikely to be effective. Examples include command and control regulations such as effluent standards or mandated technology that provides for fines, prosecution, closure, and imprisonment in case of non-compliance. Another class of instruments difficult to enforce under these circumstances is legal liability systems, used extensively in the United States. Moreover, because of a long backlog of cases in the courts of most countries, the threat of court action does not act as a deterrent or compliance incentive.
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