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alongshore to the south due to the predominant wavesfrom the northwest. Griggs and Savoy (1985)suggestthat sand mining reduced the shore-connected shoalsthat are prevalent along this shoreline, which protect thebeach by dissipating the winter storm wave energywithin the surf zone. The lack of shore-connected shoalswould allow the wave energy to reach the shore moreeasily and erode the beach and dune face. In this manner,it is hypothesized that sand mining contributed to duneerosion.Estimates of the amount of sand mined from the surfzone vary. TheU.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1985)estimated that a total of 540,000 m3were mined prior to1959 and that about 60,000 m3were mined in 1959.Dorman (1968)estimated 76,000 m3/yr, whereas Arnalet al. (1973) estimated 190,000–230,000 m3/yr. Theamount of sand mined is difficult to accuratelydetermine as the mining companies went to court andmade the records proprietary, ostensibly to insure therewas no price fixing. Information on the amounts of sandmined was provided for the Sand City operationsthrough personal communication with the mine operators just prior to the closing of the mines (Robinette,1987; Battalio, 1989), and this information is the basisfor the estimates inTable 2. The estimates for the Marinaoperations are based on the values provided in SandCity, as the operations were similar. The maximumestimate is based on the maximum amount allowed inthe U.S. Army Corps of Engineers lease of 76,000 m3/yrby Lone Star Industries in Sand City for the years from1968 to 1988 and 115,000 m3/yr by the combinedMonterey Sand Company operations at Sand City andMarina for the years 1968–1990. Sand mining leaseswere not renewed after 1988, as it was hypothesized thatthe mining contributed to erosion (Griggs and Jones,1985). It is assumed in the lease request that the minersconservatively overestimated their needs. The minimumis assumed to be simply 50% of the best estimate. Basedon the best estimate, the total yearly averaged sandmined during the intensive 1940–1984 mining periodwas 128,000 m3/yr, which is equivalent to almost 50%of the 270,000 m3/yr average dune loss.The slopes of the recession plots are examined todetermine if the rate of recession (slope) has changedsince sand mining stopped. The dune top recessions arecompared with the amount of sand mined at thecombined Sand City operations inFig. 11and at thecombined Marina operations inFig. 12(summarized inTable 1). The errors in the measurements (given earlier)are indicated by the dimensions of the symbols with atime uncertainty of +/−0.5years. The uncertainty inslope is estimated as the difference in the minimum andmaximum slopes calculated as a regression on theminimum and maximum measurement uncertainties.Examining the evolution of erosion rates, there appearsto be at least a qualitative decrease in the regressionslopes for 1984–2004 after sand mining stoppedcompared with the regression slopes of 1940s–1984,during the time of intensive sand mining. Hypothesistests were applied to determine whether the regressionslopes have changed using a two-sidedt-distribution test(see for example, Bowker and Liegerman, 1961). Theslopes and t-statistic values are given in Table 1. Forlocations between Monterey and Sand City at alongshore distances 3 km (Fig. 11) and 4 km, there arestatistically significant decreases in the slopes. Forlocations between Sand City and Marina at alongshoredistances 6 and 8 km (Fig. 12), there is a qualitativedecrease in slopes, but they are not statisticallysignificant. Therefore, it is concluded that sand miningincreased erosion, at least south of Sand City miningoperations.Sand extraction can be viewed as“digging a hole”inthe surf zone, and it would be expected that sand wouldbe drawn from both upcoast and downcoast as well asonshore and offshore to fill the hole (Dean, 2004).However, since alongshore transport of sand is generallyto the south along this shoreline, it would be expectedthe hole would be filled more by the upcoast drift. Thesoutherly transport of sand intercepted by the miningwould reduce available sand to the beaches to the southof the mining operations. Therefore, it would beexpected that locations south of mining operationswould be more affected.Fig. 11. Recession of dune top dune edge at locations 1 km (rectangles)and 3 km (ellipses), and the total amount of sand mined at Sand Cityoperations at locations 4.8–5.6 km (seeTable 2). Regression slopeshave been calculated separately between 1940s–1984 during time ofintensive sand mining and 1984–2004 after intensive mining (seeTable 1). Uncertainties are indicated by dimensions of symbols.56 E.B. Thornton et al. / Marine Geology 229 (2006) 45–58A possible reason that the rate of erosion hasdecreased between Monterey and Sand City is becausethe average 81,000 m3/yr of sand mined at Sand Cityduring the intensive mining years of 1940–1984 wasnearly twice the average amount of 47,000 m3/yrmined at Marina during the same time period. Whileduring this same time, the average rate of recession forlocations south of the Sand City mines (averaged overlocations 1, 3, and 4 km) was 0.85 m/yr comparedwith the average rate of recession for locations southof the Marina mines (averaged over locations 6 and8 km) of 1.43 m/yr (seeTables 1and2). The expectedimpact of stopping sand mining would be greater southof Sand City where the erosion rate was lower, but thevolume of sand mining was greater, compared with thelarger erosion rates and lower amounts of sand minedsouth of the Marina area. Therefore, it is concludedthat sand mining increased the mean recession rates,and also affected the alongshore variation in recessionowing to the different amounts of sand extracted at thetwo sites.It was pointed out earlier that erosion is not spatiallyor temporally constant. At most sites, there was anincrease in recession between the measurements justprior to 1984 and again between 1997 and 1998, whichcoincide with the 1982–83 and 1997–98 El Niños.There are only four data points between 1984 and 2004,resulting in only two degrees of freedom on the tstatistic. Therefore, a large change in slope is required tohave a statistically significant change, even though theerosion rate qualitatively appears to have decreasedeverywhere. The highly episodic wave climate complicates relating the volume of sand extracted by miningoperations with volumes of sand eroded along thecoast.6. Summary and conclusionsLong-term erosion rates were measured along 18 kmof shoreline in Southern Monterey Bay from 1940 to2004. Erosion is defined here as a recession of the topedge of the dune. Dune erosion occurs when stormwaves and high tides coincide to undercut the base of thesand dune causing the dune to slump onto the beach.This results in permanent recession. Dune erosion variedspatially alongshore for both the long-term mean, overkilometer scales, and for the short-term seasonalvariation over scales O(200 m). Erosion occurredalong the entire 18 km shoreline and varied alongshoreat long-term rates that increase from about 0.5 m/yr atMonterey to 1.5 m/yr near Fort Ord and then decrease
further north. Causes examined to explain the spatial
variation in erosion are: concentration of wave energy,
fluctuations in mean sea level, changes in rainfall, and
the amount of historical sand mining. It is concluded
that the primary reason for alongshore variation in
recession rates is the gradient in mean wave energy
going from small waves at Monterey, which is sheltered
by Point Piños, to larger waves northward.
Erosion is highly episodic. Erosion events are
enhanced during stormy winters and particularly during
El Niño periods, when prolonged storm waves coinciding with high tides and elevated sea level erode the
protective beach and berm, exposing the dune to wave
run-up and undercutting. Dune recession appears to be
correlated with variations in mean sea level. Mean sea
level is increased during El Niño winters. The calculated
volume loss of the dune in southern Monterey Bay
during the 1997–98 El Niño winter was 1,820,000 m
3
,
which is almost seven times the historical mean annual
dune loss of 270,000 m
3
/yr. Although during an El Niño
winter an increase in the erosion rate can be observed,
the preceding and following non-El Niño years
compensate for this increase with lower erosion rates,
keeping the overall historical trend consistent.
The Southern Monterey Bay surf zone was intensively sand mined starting in the early 1900s and
continuing until 1990. It was hypothesized that sand
mining was a primary cause of erosion in southern
Monterey Bay during this time. The best estimate of
total average yearly mined sand during the intensive
mining years 1940–1984 is 128,000 m
3
/yr, which is
equivalent to approximately 50% of the yearly averaged
Fig. 12. Recession of dune top dune edge at locations 6 km (rectangles)
and 8 km (ellipses), and total amount of sand mined at Marina
operations at locations 14.7–15.3 km (solid line) (see Table 2).
Regression slopes have been calculated separately between 1940s–
1984 during time of intensive sand mining and 1984–2004 after
intensive mining (see Table 1). Uncertainties are indicated by
dimensions of symbols.
57 E.B. Thornton et al. / Marine Geology 229 (2006) 45–58
dune volume loss during this period. Since sand mining
stopped, the erosion rates qualitatively decreased with a
significant (at 95% confidence) decrease south of the
sand mining operations in Sand City but not significant
change at Marina to the north. The alongshore changes
in erosion since the cessation of sand mining are partly
due to almost twice as much sand being mined at Sand
City as compared with Marina. Attempts to determine
average recession rates since the cessation of sand
mining are complicated by severe erosion occurrin
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