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1. IntroductionAgar, a hydrophilic
1. Introduction
Agar, a hydrophilic colloid is the first phycocolloid used in the
human food industry (Armisen & Galatas, 2000) accounting for
80% of its consumption, while the remaining 20% is used for biotechnological applications. Agars with gel strengths greater than
700 g/cm
2
in a 1.5% solution are referred as high quality agars
and are in demand in the international market (Armisen, 1995).
The application of the agar in different products depends on its
chemical composition (sulphate, methoxyl, sugar contents) which
can be significantly affected by the variables used in the extraction
process (Pereira-Pacheco, Robledo, Rodriguez-Carvajal, & FreilePelegrin, 2007).
Gracilaria species are the major agar source worldwide
(McHugh, 2003) and numerous studies have been conducted on
their agar yield and quality from different geographical areas
(Doty, Santos, & Sin, 1983; Falshaw, Furneaux, Pickering, & Stevenson, 1999; Freile-Pelegrin & Murano, 2005; Marinho-Soriano,
2001; Marinho-Soriano, Bourret, de Casabianca, & Maury, 1999;
Santos & Doty, 1983). Seven species ofGracilariahave been identified in Australia, five of these are found in Western Australia:G.
cliftonii, G. blodgetti, G. perissana, G. canaliculata and G. flagelliformis
(Huisman, 2000).G. cliftoniiis distributed from Geraldton to Esperance and is high in agar content (52%) (Byrne, Zuccarello, West,
Liao, & Kraft, 2002).
The general methodology established for agar extraction consists of leaching the dry Gracilariain boiling water, filtering off
the extract, and separating the agar by freezing and thawing to
eliminate the water (Armisen & Galatas, 1987). Although the general steps in the agar extraction process fromGracilariaspecies are
known (Andriamananatonio, Chambat, & Rinaudo, 2007; ArvizuHiguera, Rodríguez-Montesinos, Murillo-Álvarez, Muñoz-Ochoa,
& Hernández-Carmona, 2008; Freile-Pelegrin & Murano, 2005; Li
et al., 2009; Marinho-Soriano, 2001; Orduña-Rojas et al., 2008;
Pereira-Pacheco et al., 2007; Tako, Higa, Medoruma, & Nakasone,
1999), the extraction variables and methodologies differ. Therefore, it is necessary to standardise the extraction process to optimise the agar yield and quality. A notable reduction on agar yield
and decrease in gel strength are frequently associated with
elevated extraction temperatures and prolonged extraction time
(Arvizu-Higuera et al., 2008; Hurtado-Ponce, 1992; Pereira-Pacheco
et al., 2007). The influence of extraction temperature and extraction
time on agar characteristics has been reported forGracilariaspecies
(Arvizu-Higuera et al., 2008; Hurtado-Ponce, 1992; Pereira-Pacheco
et al., 2007) but no report is available onG. cliftonii.
Generally,Gracilariaspecies produces agars with low quality
due to their high sulphate concentrations. However, the gel
properties of manyGracilariaagars can be improved by alkali
treatment, which convertsL-galactose-6-sulphate to 3,6-anhydroL-galactose (Duckworth, Hong, & Yaphe, 1971; Freile-Pelegrin &
Murano, 2005; Freile-Pelegrin & Robledo, 1997b; Orduña-Rojas
et al., 2008), which is responsible for the enhancement of the gel
forming ability. Alkali treatment variables like alkali concentration,
heating time, temperature are reported to affect the yield and
quality of agar from otherGracilariaspecies (Andriamananatonio
et al., 2007; Armisen & Galatas, 1987; Arvizu-Higuera et al.,
2008; Li et al., 2009; Orduña-Rojas et al., 2008). Alkali treatment
Agar, a hydrophilic colloid is the first phycocolloid used in the
human food industry (Armisen & Galatas, 2000) accounting for
80% of its consumption, while the remaining 20% is used for biotechnological applications. Agars with gel strengths greater than
700 g/cm
2
in a 1.5% solution are referred as high quality agars
and are in demand in the international market (Armisen, 1995).
The application of the agar in different products depends on its
chemical composition (sulphate, methoxyl, sugar contents) which
can be significantly affected by the variables used in the extraction
process (Pereira-Pacheco, Robledo, Rodriguez-Carvajal, & FreilePelegrin, 2007).
Gracilaria species are the major agar source worldwide
(McHugh, 2003) and numerous studies have been conducted on
their agar yield and quality from different geographical areas
(Doty, Santos, & Sin, 1983; Falshaw, Furneaux, Pickering, & Stevenson, 1999; Freile-Pelegrin & Murano, 2005; Marinho-Soriano,
2001; Marinho-Soriano, Bourret, de Casabianca, & Maury, 1999;
Santos & Doty, 1983). Seven species ofGracilariahave been identified in Australia, five of these are found in Western Australia:G.
cliftonii, G. blodgetti, G. perissana, G. canaliculata and G. flagelliformis
(Huisman, 2000).G. cliftoniiis distributed from Geraldton to Esperance and is high in agar content (52%) (Byrne, Zuccarello, West,
Liao, & Kraft, 2002).
The general methodology established for agar extraction consists of leaching the dry Gracilariain boiling water, filtering off
the extract, and separating the agar by freezing and thawing to
eliminate the water (Armisen & Galatas, 1987). Although the general steps in the agar extraction process fromGracilariaspecies are
known (Andriamananatonio, Chambat, & Rinaudo, 2007; ArvizuHiguera, Rodríguez-Montesinos, Murillo-Álvarez, Muñoz-Ochoa,
& Hernández-Carmona, 2008; Freile-Pelegrin & Murano, 2005; Li
et al., 2009; Marinho-Soriano, 2001; Orduña-Rojas et al., 2008;
Pereira-Pacheco et al., 2007; Tako, Higa, Medoruma, & Nakasone,
1999), the extraction variables and methodologies differ. Therefore, it is necessary to standardise the extraction process to optimise the agar yield and quality. A notable reduction on agar yield
and decrease in gel strength are frequently associated with
elevated extraction temperatures and prolonged extraction time
(Arvizu-Higuera et al., 2008; Hurtado-Ponce, 1992; Pereira-Pacheco
et al., 2007). The influence of extraction temperature and extraction
time on agar characteristics has been reported forGracilariaspecies
(Arvizu-Higuera et al., 2008; Hurtado-Ponce, 1992; Pereira-Pacheco
et al., 2007) but no report is available onG. cliftonii.
Generally,Gracilariaspecies produces agars with low quality
due to their high sulphate concentrations. However, the gel
properties of manyGracilariaagars can be improved by alkali
treatment, which convertsL-galactose-6-sulphate to 3,6-anhydroL-galactose (Duckworth, Hong, & Yaphe, 1971; Freile-Pelegrin &
Murano, 2005; Freile-Pelegrin & Robledo, 1997b; Orduña-Rojas
et al., 2008), which is responsible for the enhancement of the gel
forming ability. Alkali treatment variables like alkali concentration,
heating time, temperature are reported to affect the yield and
quality of agar from otherGracilariaspecies (Andriamananatonio
et al., 2007; Armisen & Galatas, 1987; Arvizu-Higuera et al.,
2008; Li et al., 2009; Orduña-Rojas et al., 2008). Alkali treatment
0/5000
1. PendahuluanAgar-agar, hidrofil koloid adalah phycocolloid pertama yang digunakan dalamindustri makanan manusia (Armisen & Galatas, 2000) akuntansi untuk80% dari konsumsi, sementara sisanya 20% digunakan untuk aplikasi Bioteknologi. Agars dengan gel kekuatan lebih besar dari700 g/cm2dalam larutan 1,5% disebut sebagai berkualitas tinggi agarsdan permintaan di pasar internasional (Armisen, 1995).Penerapan agar-agar dalam produk yang berbeda tergantung pada nyakomposisi kimia (sulfat, methoxyl, isi gula) yangdapat secara signifikan dipengaruhi oleh variabel-variabel yang digunakan dalam ekstraksiproses (Pereira-Pacheco, Robledo, Rodriguez-Carvajal, & FreilePelegrin, 2007).Spesies Gracilaria adalah sumber utama agar di seluruh dunia(McHugh, 2003) dan banyak penelitian telah dilakukan padamereka agar hasil dan kualitas dari daerah geografis yang berbeda(Doty, Santos, & dosa, 1983; Falshaw, Furneaux, Pickering, & Stevenson, 1999; Freile-Pelegrin & Murano, 2005; Marinho-Soriano,tahun 2001; Marinho-Soriano, Bourret, de Casabianca, & Maury, 1999;Santos & Doty, 1983). OfGracilariahave tujuh spesies telah diidentifikasi di Australia, lima ini ditemukan di barat Australia: G.cliftonii, G. blodgetti, G. perissana, G. canaliculata dan G. flagelliformis(Huisman, 2000).G. cliftoniiis didistribusikan dari Geraldton menuju Esperance dan tinggi kandungan agar-agar (52%) (Byrne, Zuccarello, Barat,Liao, & Kraft, 2002).Metodologi yang umum didirikan untuk ekstraksi agar-agar terdiri dari pencucian Gracilariain kering air mendidih, penyaringanekstrak, dan memisahkan agar-agar oleh pembekuan dan pencairan untukmenghilangkan air (Armisen & Galatas, 1987). Meskipun langkah-langkah umum dalam agar-agar ekstraksi proses fromGracilariaspeciesdikenal (Andriamananatonio, Chambat, & Rinaudo, 2007; ArvizuHiguera, Rodríguez-Montesinos, Murillo-Álvarez, Muñoz-Ochoa,& Hernández-Carmona, 2008; Freile-Pelegrin & Murano, 2005; Liet al., 2009; Marinho-Soriano, 2001; Orduña-Rojas et al., 2008;Pereira-Pacheco et al., 2007; Tako, Higa, Medoruma, & Nakasone,1999), Variabel ekstraksi dan metodologi yang berbeda. Oleh karena itu, sangatlah penting untuk membakukan proses ekstraksi untuk mengoptimalkan agar hasil dan kualitas. Pengurangan terkenal pada agar hasildan penurunan kekuatan gel sering dikaitkan dengansuhu tinggi ekstraksi dan berkepanjangan ekstraksi waktu(Arvizu-Higuera et al., 2008; Hurtado-Ponce, 1992; Pereira-Pachecoet al., 2007). Pengaruh suhu ekstraksi dan ekstraksiwaktu agar karakteristik telah melaporkan forGracilariaspecies(Arvizu-Higuera et al., 2008; Hurtado-Ponce, 1992; Pereira-Pachecoet al., 2007), tetapi tidak ada laporan yang tersedia onG. cliftonii.Umumnya, Gracilariaspecies menghasilkan agars dengan kualitas rendahkarena konsentrasi sulfat tinggi mereka. Namun, gelsifat manyGracilariaagars dapat ditingkatkan dengan alkalipengobatan, yang convertsL-galaktosa-6-sulfat untuk 3,6-anhydroL-galaktosa (Duckworth, Hong, & Yaphe, 1971; Freile-Pelegrin &Murano, 2005; Freile-Pelegrin & Robledo, 1997b; Orduña Rojaset al., 2008), bertanggung jawab untuk peningkatan gelmembentuk kemampuan. Alkali pengobatan variabel seperti konsentrasi alkali,Penghangat Ruangan waktu, suhu yang dilaporkan untuk mempengaruhi hasil dankualitas agar dari otherGracilariaspecies (Andriamananatonioet al., 2007; Armisen & Galatas, 1987; Arvizu-Higuera et al.,2008; Li et al., 2009; Orduña-Rojas et al., 2008). Perlakuan alkali
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