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• Infl uenced by performance variables • Not infl uenced by performance
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DEFINING LEARNING

Any attempt to defi ne learning must begin with the important distinction between performance and learning. Far from simply being a defi nitional consideration, this distinction is critical. As we will see in this chapter and in others to follow, a failure to appreciate the distinction between performance and learning can lead to many false conclusions concerning instructional and practice methods, the assessment of learning, or even whether learning has occurred at all. Such conclusions can, and frequently do, lead directly to less than optimal learning outcomes.

Performance

Simply stated, performance is observable behavior. If you see someone bicycle across campus, serve a tennis ball, or swim laps in a pool, you are observing their performance of these skills. Performance refers to the execution of a skill at a specifi c time and in a specifi c location or situation. In speaking of performance, we may refer to a single execution of a skill (“She drove the ball 200 yards down the fairway.”), to a single manifestation of skills within a specifi c context (“He was really on his game and played well today.”), or even to the evaluation of an extended series of performance observations (“The Bobcats played poorly this season.”) Additionally, performance may be measured and specifi ed quantitatively (a 200-yard drive), or referred to in a more evaluative qualitative fashion (the Bobcats had a poor season). In each case, however, the evaluation of performance is based upon observations of skill level at specifi c places and times. Learning, on the other hand, cannot be observed directly but must be inferred from the characteristics of a person’s performance. What we observe is always performance—never learning.

Learning

Learning, the process by which people acquire a new capacity to perform a skill, is inferred from performance observations. We infer that learning has occurred (or has not) based upon observations of performance. We should not be surprised, for example, to hear that someone had “learned” to play tennis if we observed him or her unable to hit the ball during an initial practice season, and then returned some months later to see the same person placing ball after ball precisely in an opponent’s court. Clearly, he or she has acquired a new capacity to perform tennis skills that indicates that learning must have taken place. We would further expect that if we inquired about the person’s activities during the intervening months, we would be told about many hours of practice devoted to improving tennis skills. We would be surprised, and probably more than a bit skeptical, to be told that no practice had occurred between the fi rst and second time we observed the person playing tennis. We know from experience that improvements of such magnitude cannot occur without practice. Finally, if asked whether we thought that the tennis player would perform more like the fi rst or second time we observed him or her play if we returned tomorrow, we would obviously respond by saying more like the second time— skills are not just lost overnight. In fact, we would expect that if we returned in several months, or even after several years, our tennis player would never completely revert to his or her original inability to hit the ball, even if some skill level was lost due to nonpractice. More than likely, we would assume that further practice would continue and lead to even better performances of tennis skills in the future.
performance:
Qualitative or
quantitative assessment
of what can be observed
during the execution of
a skill.
learning: A relatively
stable change in
performance resulting
from practice or
experience.

170 CHAPTER 5 • The Learning of Motor Skills

In our example, we inferred that the tennis player had demonstrated his or her learning of tennis skills in three ways: (1) The player’s performance improved over time, (2) the improvement resulted from practice, and (3) the player’s improved skill level was stable and, to some degree at least, permanent. If we forge these common-sense observations of learning into a defi nition, we can then defi ne learning as a change in the capacity to perform a skill that is inferred from a relatively permanent improvement in performance as a result of practice or experience. It should be carefully noted in our example that learning is not (and never is) observed directly, but rather is inferred from performance observations. We infer that learning has occurred when the following three conditions are observed, which comprise the defi nition of learning:

1. Learning is a change in performance or the capacity to perform.
2. Learning results from practice or experience.
3. Learning is relatively stable or permanent.
The Learning–Performance Distinction

Considerable misunderstanding concerning the degree of learning attained during practice results from failing to fully appreciate the distinctions between learning and performance. At the root of this misunderstanding is the assumption that performance is an accurate refl ection of learning, a mirror in which is displayed the true image of learning. The problem with this assumption is that what we see when observing performance is not always an accurate refl ection of learning. Indeed, the mirror of performance from which we are prone to draw such conclusions frequently refl ects a distorted image of learning, just as mirrors found in carnival fun houses distort one’s true body image. The major problem with assuming that performance is an accurate refl ection of learning is that such thinking leads to the further assumption that learning is best facilitated when it is accompanied by good performance. The better the performance, the better the learning. It follows from this that enhancing performance within practice should be a major goal of the motor skills practitioner. Similarly, practice resulting in performance that is less than that of which a learner is capable is assumed to also be less effective in promoting optimal learning. But although it is true that performance often does mirror learning accurately, it is just as true that it can, and frequently does, mask the true quality and extent of learning. The effective practitioner must therefore understand when performance is, and when it is not, a reliable guide for assessing learning. The problem in relying too exclusively on performance observations when assessing learning is that performance is a temporary expression of a learner’s ability to execute a skill. As such, it is a refl ection both of the person’s learned capacity to perform the skill and of the presence of temporary features inherent within the practice or performance context. These temporary factors are called performance variables, and include instructional, environmental, and learner characteristics. Instructional characteristics include such factors as type of practice schedule, the order in which various skills are sequenced, the relative intensity or restfulness of practice, the use of simplifi cation techniques such as part practice, type of instructions provided to learners, and the amount and type of feedback given to learners. Environmental characteristics include the physical characteristics of the practice setting as well as any equipment that is used in executing skills. Learner characteristics include such factors as anxiety, fatigue, motivation, physical condition, the use of stimulants or drugs, and whether practicing alone or in the presence of others. Each of the factors just listed, as well as many not listed, can have pronounced effects on practice performance. Some factors may help learners perform well during practice, but such performance enhancement is not permanent and quickly dissipates once practice is over. Some factors, on the other hand, may depress a learner’s capacity to perform during practice, but once the temporarily imposed practice conditions are removed, the learner may be able to demonstrate an improved capacity to perform (i.e., can demonstrate having learned to perform better than he or she was capable of performing during practice). The effective motor skills instructor must understand this learning– performance distinction, and be able to discriminate between temporary effects on performance and more permanent infl uences on learning. We will especially consider the infl uence of a number of such performance variables in Chapters 11 and 12. Basic distinctions between performance and learning are summarized in Table 5.1.

TABLE 5.1
Differences between Performance and Learning

Performance Learning
• Observable behavior—What we
can see
• Inferred from performance—
cannot be observed directly
• May represent only temporary
changes in behavior
• Relatively permanent changes in
behavior


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• Infl uenced by performance variables • Not infl uenced by performance
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DEFINING LEARNING

Any attempt to defi ne learning must begin with the important distinction between performance and learning. Far from simply being a defi nitional consideration, this distinction is critical. As we will see in this chapter and in others to follow, a failure to appreciate the distinction between performance and learning can lead to many false conclusions concerning instructional and practice methods, the assessment of learning, or even whether learning has occurred at all. Such conclusions can, and frequently do, lead directly to less than optimal learning outcomes.

Performance

Simply stated, performance is observable behavior. If you see someone bicycle across campus, serve a tennis ball, or swim laps in a pool, you are observing their performance of these skills. Performance refers to the execution of a skill at a specifi c time and in a specifi c location or situation. In speaking of performance, we may refer to a single execution of a skill (“She drove the ball 200 yards down the fairway.”), to a single manifestation of skills within a specifi c context (“He was really on his game and played well today.”), or even to the evaluation of an extended series of performance observations (“The Bobcats played poorly this season.”) Additionally, performance may be measured and specifi ed quantitatively (a 200-yard drive), or referred to in a more evaluative qualitative fashion (the Bobcats had a poor season). In each case, however, the evaluation of performance is based upon observations of skill level at specifi c places and times. Learning, on the other hand, cannot be observed directly but must be inferred from the characteristics of a person’s performance. What we observe is always performance—never learning.

Learning

Learning, the process by which people acquire a new capacity to perform a skill, is inferred from performance observations. We infer that learning has occurred (or has not) based upon observations of performance. We should not be surprised, for example, to hear that someone had “learned” to play tennis if we observed him or her unable to hit the ball during an initial practice season, and then returned some months later to see the same person placing ball after ball precisely in an opponent’s court. Clearly, he or she has acquired a new capacity to perform tennis skills that indicates that learning must have taken place. We would further expect that if we inquired about the person’s activities during the intervening months, we would be told about many hours of practice devoted to improving tennis skills. We would be surprised, and probably more than a bit skeptical, to be told that no practice had occurred between the fi rst and second time we observed the person playing tennis. We know from experience that improvements of such magnitude cannot occur without practice. Finally, if asked whether we thought that the tennis player would perform more like the fi rst or second time we observed him or her play if we returned tomorrow, we would obviously respond by saying more like the second time— skills are not just lost overnight. In fact, we would expect that if we returned in several months, or even after several years, our tennis player would never completely revert to his or her original inability to hit the ball, even if some skill level was lost due to nonpractice. More than likely, we would assume that further practice would continue and lead to even better performances of tennis skills in the future.
performance:
Qualitative or
quantitative assessment
of what can be observed
during the execution of
a skill.
learning: A relatively
stable change in
performance resulting
from practice or
experience.

170 CHAPTER 5 • The Learning of Motor Skills

In our example, we inferred that the tennis player had demonstrated his or her learning of tennis skills in three ways: (1) The player’s performance improved over time, (2) the improvement resulted from practice, and (3) the player’s improved skill level was stable and, to some degree at least, permanent. If we forge these common-sense observations of learning into a defi nition, we can then defi ne learning as a change in the capacity to perform a skill that is inferred from a relatively permanent improvement in performance as a result of practice or experience. It should be carefully noted in our example that learning is not (and never is) observed directly, but rather is inferred from performance observations. We infer that learning has occurred when the following three conditions are observed, which comprise the defi nition of learning:

1. Learning is a change in performance or the capacity to perform.
2. Learning results from practice or experience.
3. Learning is relatively stable or permanent.
The Learning–Performance Distinction

Considerable misunderstanding concerning the degree of learning attained during practice results from failing to fully appreciate the distinctions between learning and performance. At the root of this misunderstanding is the assumption that performance is an accurate refl ection of learning, a mirror in which is displayed the true image of learning. The problem with this assumption is that what we see when observing performance is not always an accurate refl ection of learning. Indeed, the mirror of performance from which we are prone to draw such conclusions frequently refl ects a distorted image of learning, just as mirrors found in carnival fun houses distort one’s true body image. The major problem with assuming that performance is an accurate refl ection of learning is that such thinking leads to the further assumption that learning is best facilitated when it is accompanied by good performance. The better the performance, the better the learning. It follows from this that enhancing performance within practice should be a major goal of the motor skills practitioner. Similarly, practice resulting in performance that is less than that of which a learner is capable is assumed to also be less effective in promoting optimal learning. But although it is true that performance often does mirror learning accurately, it is just as true that it can, and frequently does, mask the true quality and extent of learning. The effective practitioner must therefore understand when performance is, and when it is not, a reliable guide for assessing learning. The problem in relying too exclusively on performance observations when assessing learning is that performance is a temporary expression of a learner’s ability to execute a skill. As such, it is a refl ection both of the person’s learned capacity to perform the skill and of the presence of temporary features inherent within the practice or performance context. These temporary factors are called performance variables, and include instructional, environmental, and learner characteristics. Instructional characteristics include such factors as type of practice schedule, the order in which various skills are sequenced, the relative intensity or restfulness of practice, the use of simplifi cation techniques such as part practice, type of instructions provided to learners, and the amount and type of feedback given to learners. Environmental characteristics include the physical characteristics of the practice setting as well as any equipment that is used in executing skills. Learner characteristics include such factors as anxiety, fatigue, motivation, physical condition, the use of stimulants or drugs, and whether practicing alone or in the presence of others. Each of the factors just listed, as well as many not listed, can have pronounced effects on practice performance. Some factors may help learners perform well during practice, but such performance enhancement is not permanent and quickly dissipates once practice is over. Some factors, on the other hand, may depress a learner’s capacity to perform during practice, but once the temporarily imposed practice conditions are removed, the learner may be able to demonstrate an improved capacity to perform (i.e., can demonstrate having learned to perform better than he or she was capable of performing during practice). The effective motor skills instructor must understand this learning– performance distinction, and be able to discriminate between temporary effects on performance and more permanent infl uences on learning. We will especially consider the infl uence of a number of such performance variables in Chapters 11 and 12. Basic distinctions between performance and learning are summarized in Table 5.1.

TABLE 5.1
Differences between Performance and Learning

Performance Learning
• Observable behavior—What we
can see
• Inferred from performance—
cannot be observed directly
• May represent only temporary
changes in behavior
• Relatively permanent changes in
behavior


Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:[Salinan]
Disalin!
• infl dipengaruhi oleh variabel kinerja • Tidak infl dipengaruhi oleh kinerja
variabel
Copyright
mendefinisikan BELAJAR Setiap usaha untuk defi belajar ne harus dimulai dengan perbedaan penting antara kinerja dan pembelajaran. Jauh dari hanya menjadi defi nitional pertimbangan, perbedaan ini sangat penting. Seperti yang akan kita lihat dalam bab ini dan orang lain untuk mengikuti, kegagalan untuk menghargai perbedaan antara kinerja dan pembelajaran dapat menyebabkan banyak kesimpulan yang salah mengenai pembelajaran dan praktek metode, penilaian pembelajaran, atau bahkan apakah pembelajaran telah terjadi sama sekali. Kesimpulan tersebut dapat, dan sering lakukan, mengarah langsung ke kurang dari hasil belajar yang optimal. Kinerja Secara sederhana, kinerja adalah perilaku yang dapat diamati. Jika Anda melihat seseorang sepeda di kampus, melayani bola tenis, atau berenang di kolam renang, Anda mengamati kinerja mereka keterampilan ini. Kinerja mengacu pada pelaksanaan keterampilan pada waktu c spesifik dan di lokasi c spesifik atau situasi. Dalam berbicara tentang kinerja, kita dapat merujuk pada eksekusi tunggal keterampilan ("Dia melaju bola 200 yard di fairway."), Untuk satu manifestasi dari keterampilan dalam konteks yang spesifik c ("Dia benar-benar pada permainan dan bermain baik hari ini. "), atau bahkan untuk evaluasi seri diperpanjang pengamatan kinerja (" The Bobcats bermain buruk musim ini. ") Selain itu, kinerja dapat diukur dan ed spesifik kuantitatif (200-yard drive), atau disebut untuk secara kualitatif lebih evaluatif (Bobcats memiliki musim yang buruk). Dalam setiap kasus, bagaimanapun, evaluasi kinerja didasarkan pada pengamatan tingkat keterampilan di tempat c spesifik dan kali. Belajar, di sisi lain, tidak dapat diamati secara langsung tetapi harus disimpulkan dari karakteristik kinerja seseorang. Apa yang kita amati selalu kinerja pernah belajar. Belajar Belajar, proses dimana orang memperoleh kapasitas baru untuk melakukan keterampilan, yang disimpulkan dari pengamatan kinerja. Kami menyimpulkan bahwa pembelajaran telah terjadi (atau belum) berdasarkan pengamatan kinerja. Kita seharusnya tidak terkejut, misalnya, mendengar bahwa seseorang telah "belajar" untuk bermain tenis jika kita mengamati dia dapat memukul bola selama musim latihan awal, dan kemudian kembali beberapa bulan kemudian untuk melihat bola orang yang sama menempatkan setelah bola tepatnya di pengadilan lawan. Jelas, dia telah memperoleh kapasitas baru untuk melakukan keterampilan tenis yang menunjukkan pembelajaran yang harus terjadi. Kami selanjutnya akan berharap bahwa jika kita bertanya tentang kegiatan orang tersebut selama bulan intervensi, kita akan diberitahu tentang banyak jam praktek yang ditujukan untuk meningkatkan keterampilan tenis. Kami akan terkejut, dan sedikit mungkin lebih dari skeptis, untuk diberitahu bahwa tidak ada praktik yang terjadi antara pertama dan kedua kalinya kami mengamati orang bermain tenis. Kami tahu dari pengalaman bahwa perbaikan sebesar itu tidak dapat terjadi tanpa praktek. Akhirnya, jika ditanya apakah kita berpikir bahwa pemain tenis akan melakukan lebih seperti pertama atau kedua kalinya kami mengamati dia atau dia bermain jika kita kembali besok, kami jelas akan menanggapi dengan mengatakan lebih seperti keterampilan waktu-kedua tidak hanya hilang semalam . Bahkan, kita akan mengharapkan bahwa jika kita kembali dalam beberapa bulan, atau bahkan setelah beberapa tahun, petenis kita tidak akan pernah benar-benar kembali ke ketidakmampuan asli nya untuk memukul bola, bahkan jika beberapa tingkat keahlian hilang karena nonpractice. Kemungkinan besar, kita akan menganggap bahwa praktek lebih lanjut akan terus dan mengakibatkan pertunjukan yang lebih baik dari keterampilan tenis di masa depan. Kinerja: kualitatif atau penilaian kuantitatif dari apa yang dapat diamati selama pelaksanaan . keterampilan belajar: A relatif perubahan stabil di Kinerja yang dihasilkan dari praktek atau . Pengalaman 170 BAB 5 • Belajar dari keterampilan motorik Dalam contoh kita, kita disimpulkan bahwa pemain tenis telah menunjukkan nya belajar keterampilan tenis dalam tiga cara: (1) kinerja pemain meningkat dari waktu ke waktu, ( 2) peningkatan yang dihasilkan dari praktek, dan (3) meningkatkan tingkat keterampilan pemain stabil dan, untuk beberapa derajat setidaknya, permanen. Jika kita menjalin pengamatan yang masuk akal belajar menjadi definisi defi, kita dapat kemudian defi ne belajar sebagai perubahan dalam kapasitas untuk melakukan keterampilan yang disimpulkan dari peningkatan yang relatif permanen dalam kinerja sebagai hasil dari latihan atau pengalaman. Ini harus hati-hati dicatat secara dalam contoh kita bahwa belajar tidak (dan tidak pernah adalah) diamati secara langsung, melainkan disimpulkan dari pengamatan kinerja. Kami menyimpulkan bahwa pembelajaran telah terjadi ketika tiga kondisi berikut diamati, yang terdiri dari definisi defi pembelajaran: 1. Belajar adalah perubahan dalam kinerja atau kapasitas untuk melakukan. 2. Belajar hasil dari praktek atau pengalaman. 3. Belajar relatif stabil atau permanen. Belajar-Kinerja Distinction kesalahpahaman yang cukup mengenai tingkat pembelajaran dicapai selama hasil praktek dari gagal untuk sepenuhnya menghargai perbedaan antara belajar dan kinerja. Pada akar kesalahpahaman ini adalah asumsi bahwa kinerja merupakan cerminan refl akurat pembelajaran, cermin di mana ditampilkan gambar sebenarnya dari belajar. Masalah dengan asumsi ini adalah bahwa apa yang kita lihat ketika mengamati kinerja tidak selalu merupakan cerminan refl akurat pembelajaran. Memang, cermin kinerja dari mana kita cenderung menarik kesimpulan seperti sering refl proyek-gambar terdistorsi pembelajaran, seperti cermin yang ditemukan di rumah-rumah karnaval menyenangkan mendistorsi seseorang citra tubuh yang benar. Masalah utama dengan asumsi kinerja yang merupakan cerminan refl akurat pembelajaran adalah bahwa pemikiran tersebut mengarah pada asumsi lebih lanjut bahwa pembelajaran terbaik difasilitasi ketika disertai dengan kinerja yang baik. Semakin baik kinerja, lebih baik belajar. Memang benar bahwa meningkatkan kinerja dalam praktek harus menjadi tujuan utama dari praktisi keterampilan motorik. Demikian pula, praktek menghasilkan kinerja yang kurang dari yang seorang pelajar mampu diasumsikan juga kurang efektif dalam mempromosikan belajar yang optimal. Tapi meskipun benar bahwa kinerja sering melakukan cermin pembelajaran secara akurat, hal itu sama benar bahwa itu bisa, dan sering tidak, topeng kualitas yang benar dan tingkat pembelajaran. Oleh karena itu praktisi efektif harus memahami ketika kinerja, dan jika tidak, panduan yang dapat diandalkan untuk menilai pembelajaran. Masalah dalam mengandalkan terlalu eksklusif pada pengamatan kinerja ketika menilai pembelajaran adalah bahwa kinerja adalah ekspresi sementara kemampuan pelajar untuk melaksanakan keterampilan. Dengan demikian, itu adalah cerminan refl baik kapasitas belajar seseorang untuk melakukan keterampilan dan kehadiran fitur sementara melekat dalam praktek atau kinerja konteks. Faktor sementara ini disebut variabel kinerja, dan termasuk instruksional, karakteristik lingkungan, dan pelajar. Karakteristik pembelajaran termasuk faktor-faktor seperti jenis jadwal praktek, urutan berbagai keterampilan yang diurutkan, intensitas relatif atau restfulness praktek, penggunaan simplifi teknik kation seperti praktek bagian, jenis instruksi yang diberikan kepada peserta didik, dan jumlah dan jenis umpan balik yang diberikan kepada peserta didik. Karakteristik lingkungan meliputi karakteristik fisik pengaturan praktek serta peralatan yang digunakan dalam melaksanakan keterampilan. Karakteristik peserta didik termasuk faktor-faktor seperti kecemasan, kelelahan, motivasi, kondisi fisik, penggunaan stimulan atau obat-obatan, dan apakah berlatih sendiri atau di hadapan orang lain. Setiap faktor hanya terdaftar, serta banyak tidak terdaftar, bisa telah diucapkan efek pada kinerja praktek. Beberapa faktor dapat membantu peserta didik melakukan dengan baik selama latihan, tetapi peningkatan kinerja tersebut tidak permanen dan cepat menghilang setelah latihan selesai. Beberapa faktor, di sisi lain, dapat menekan kemampuan pelajar untuk melakukan selama latihan, tetapi setelah kondisi praktek sementara dikenakan dihapus, pelajar mungkin dapat menunjukkan kapasitas ditingkatkan untuk melakukan (yaitu, dapat mendemonstrasikan setelah belajar untuk melakukan yang lebih baik dari dia atau dia mampu melakukan selama latihan). Efektif instruktur keterampilan motorik harus memahami kinerja ini perbedaan Pembelajaran, dan dapat membedakan antara efek sementara pada kinerja dan lebih uences infl permanen pada pembelajaran. Kami akan sangat mempertimbangkan pengaruh infl dari sejumlah variabel kinerja tersebut dalam Bab 11 dan 12. perbedaan dasar antara kinerja dan pembelajaran dirangkum dalam Tabel 5.1. Tabel 5.1 Perbedaan antara Kinerja dan Pembelajaran Belajar Kinerja • perilaku-apa diamati kita bisa melihat • disimpulkan dari kinerja- tidak dapat diamati secara langsung • Dapat merepresentasikan hanya sementara perubahan perilaku • perubahan yang relatif permanen dalam perilaku















































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