International Training and Developm

International Training and Development Activities
Organizations recognize the importance of international training and development activities and increasingly use them to prepare individuals for the challenges and opportunities associated with living and working in new cultural environments, with diverse teams, across national borders, etc. (see Windham International & National Foreign Trade Council, 2003, 2002; Csoka & Hackett, 1998; Gregersen, Morrison, & Black, 1998). The terms international training activities (ITAs) and international development activities (IDAs) tend to be combined to signify the set of activities used by firms to develop the competency base of their internationallyoriented employees. The objective of both ITAs and IDAs is to foster learning among the organizational members and develop enriched and more capable workers who, in turn, can enhance organizational competitiveness and effectiveness internationally.
While similar in objective, the specific goals of ITAs and IDAs are, in fact, different. In general terms, ITAs focus on the competencies needed to perform more effectively on one’s current job. In other words, ITAs tend to be oriented towards solving short-term performance concerns. In contrast, IDAs refer to the acquisition of competencies needed to perform in some future job. It is, however, important to note that certain activities such as cross-cultural training can be used for both for training purposes (e.g., Earley, 1997) and for developmental purposes (e.g., Lievens, Harris, Van Keer & Bisqueret, 2003). Some of the various international training and development activities are listed below.
• Cross-cultural Training (Specific and General)– The most researched and most used in practice, when used as an ITA, the goal of cross-cultural training is to increase an international assignee’s specific cross-cultural knowledge of a given country. When (albeit, less commonly) used as an IDA, cross-cultural training will be geared for individuals who must work across a variety of cultural contexts – without any one cultural context in mind.
• Predeparture Cross-cultural Orientation – As an ITA, the immediate goal of cross-cultural orientation is to help an internationally assignee learn the basics (e.g., currency, public transportation, working hours) to comfortably live and work in host country.
• Diversity Training – Depending on the immediacy of the need, diversity training can be either an ITA or an IDA. The goal of diversity training is to increase one’s ability to understand and appreciate multiple cultural perspectives.
• Language Training- Depending on the immediacy of the need for fluency in another language, language training can be either an ITA or an IDA – but in practice is most often offered when an international assignee will be moving to a country where different language skills are needed. Sometimes, organizations offer language training in the corporate language for all who are interested. In this case, language training may be viewed more developmentally.
• Traditional Education in International Management – University or specific training programs are often offered as a part of a larger developmental plan and therefore more likely to be an ITA. The goal of the traditional program is to increase international business acumen and knowledge.
• Cross-National Coaching or Mentoring – Generally viewed as an IDA, cross-national coaches and mentors help international assignees build cultural awareness, work on cultural “blind-spots and help develop competencies for becoming effective in an international environment. Occasionally, cross-national coaches are assigned for a specific task (e.g., delivering an important speech in another country, negotiating an international joint venture) and, in those cases, would then be considered more of an ITA.
• Immersion Cultural Experiences - Generally viewed as an IDA, the goal of immersion is to – with a rather quick experience – produce culture shock for the developmental purpose of increasing one’s ability to recognize and appreciate multiple cultural perspectives.
• Cross-Border Global Teams (with Debriefing) – Both an ITA and an IDA, individuals are debriefed after a multicultural team experience (e.g., a meeting) to receive feedback, and hopefully improve their skills, on how to be a better leader, team member, etc. in a multicultural context. The feedback is an ITA for the purpose of the immediate team and an IDA for long-term skill development.
• International Assignments – International assignments can be the means by which people develop cross-cultural competence – and the outcome that the more immediate-focused ITAs hope to influence. In the developmental context, as an IDA, living and working in another country may have a long-term effect on an individual’s cross-national competence. Believing in their developmental power, many firms view successful international assignments as the indicator of cross-national competence.

We encourage future research to investigate the various ITAs and IDAs with their specific goals in mind. Research, to date, has overgeneralized the short-term and long-term outcomes of these diverse training and development interventions. An investigation of the various interventions, relative to the short-term and long-term goals would help organizations better understand the implications of the activities in which they engage. In some cases, long-term benefits may be present as a direct result of a short-term intervention (e.g., a language course gives an individual some cultural exposure and appreciation). The concern, however, is that the opposite may also be the case – that a long-term intervention (such as an international rotational assignment) may have only a short-term gain. In the case of an international assignment, this concern suggests that an individual has learned to be competent within one particular culture, but has not developed any international competencies that could generalize to other cross-border contexts. This is an open, and very important, area for scholarly investigation.

International Training and Development Activities
 Organizations recognize the importance of international training and development activities and increasingly use them to prepare individuals for the challenges and opportunities associated with living and working in new cultural environments, with diverse teams, across national borders, etc. (see Windham International & National Foreign Trade Council, 2003, 2002; Csoka & Hackett, 1998; Gregersen, Morrison, & Black, 1998). The terms international training activities (ITAs) and international development activities (IDAs) tend to be combined to signify the set of activities used by firms to develop the competency base of their internationallyoriented employees. The objective of both ITAs and IDAs is to foster learning among the organizational members and develop enriched and more capable workers who, in turn, can enhance organizational competitiveness and effectiveness internationally.
 While similar in objective, the specific goals of ITAs and IDAs are, in fact, different. In general terms, ITAs focus on the competencies needed to perform more effectively on one’s current job. In other words, ITAs tend to be oriented towards solving short-term performance concerns. In contrast, IDAs refer to the acquisition of competencies needed to perform in some future job. It is, however, important to note that certain activities such as cross-cultural training can be used for both for training purposes (e.g., Earley, 1997) and for developmental purposes (e.g., Lievens, Harris, Van Keer & Bisqueret, 2003). Some of the various international training and development activities are listed below.
• Cross-cultural Training (Specific and General)– The most researched and most used in practice, when used as an ITA, the goal of cross-cultural training is to increase an international assignee’s specific cross-cultural knowledge of a given country. When (albeit, less commonly) used as an IDA, cross-cultural training will be geared for individuals who must work across a variety of cultural contexts – without any one cultural context in mind.
• Predeparture Cross-cultural Orientation – As an ITA, the immediate goal of cross-cultural orientation is to help an internationally assignee learn the basics (e.g., currency, public transportation, working hours) to comfortably live and work in host country.
• Diversity Training – Depending on the immediacy of the need, diversity training can be either an ITA or an IDA. The goal of diversity training is to increase one’s ability to understand and appreciate multiple cultural perspectives.
• Language Training- Depending on the immediacy of the need for fluency in another language, language training can be either an ITA or an IDA – but in practice is most often offered when an international assignee will be moving to a country where different language skills are needed. Sometimes, organizations offer language training in the corporate language for all who are interested. In this case, language training may be viewed more developmentally.
• Traditional Education in International Management – University or specific training programs are often offered as a part of a larger developmental plan and therefore more likely to be an ITA. The goal of the traditional program is to increase international business acumen and knowledge.
• Cross-National Coaching or Mentoring – Generally viewed as an IDA, cross-national coaches and mentors help international assignees build cultural awareness, work on cultural “blind-spots and help develop competencies for becoming effective in an international environment. Occasionally, cross-national coaches are assigned for a specific task (e.g., delivering an important speech in another country, negotiating an international joint venture) and, in those cases, would then be considered more of an ITA.
• Immersion Cultural Experiences - Generally viewed as an IDA, the goal of immersion is to – with a rather quick experience – produce culture shock for the developmental purpose of increasing one’s ability to recognize and appreciate multiple cultural perspectives.
• Cross-Border Global Teams (with Debriefing) – Both an ITA and an IDA, individuals are debriefed after a multicultural team experience (e.g., a meeting) to receive feedback, and hopefully improve their skills, on how to be a better leader, team member, etc. in a multicultural context. The feedback is an ITA for the purpose of the immediate team and an IDA for long-term skill development.
• International Assignments – International assignments can be the means by which people develop cross-cultural competence – and the outcome that the more immediate-focused ITAs hope to influence. In the developmental context, as an IDA, living and working in another country may have a long-term effect on an individual’s cross-national competence. Believing in their developmental power, many firms view successful international assignments as the indicator of cross-national competence.

We encourage future research to investigate the various ITAs and IDAs with their specific goals in mind. Research, to date, has overgeneralized the short-term and long-term outcomes of these diverse training and development interventions. An investigation of the various interventions, relative to the short-term and long-term goals would help organizations better understand the implications of the activities in which they engage. In some cases, long-term benefits may be present as a direct result of a short-term intervention (e.g., a language course gives an individual some cultural exposure and appreciation). The concern, however, is that the opposite may also be the case – that a long-term intervention (such as an international rotational assignment) may have only a short-term gain. In the case of an international assignment, this concern suggests that an individual has learned to be competent within one particular culture, but has not developed any international competencies that could generalize to other cross-border contexts. This is an open, and very important, area for scholarly investigation.

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Pelatihan Internasional dan kegiatan pembangunan Organisasi menyadari pentingnya kegiatan pelatihan dan pengembangan internasional dan semakin menggunakan mereka untuk mempersiapkan individu untuk tantangan dan peluang yang terkait dengan tinggal dan bekerja di lingkungan budaya yang baru, dengan beragam tim, melintasi batas-batas nasional, dll (Lihat Windham internasional & Dewan perdagangan asing nasional, 2003, 2002; Csoka & Hackett, 1998; Gregersen, Morrison, & hitam, 1998). Persyaratan Pelatihan Internasional (ITAs) dan kegiatan pembangunan internasional (IDAs) yang cenderung dikombinasikan untuk menandakan serangkaian kegiatan yang digunakan oleh perusahaan untuk mengembangkan basis kompetensi karyawannya internationallyoriented. Tujuan ITAs dan IDAs adalah untuk memupuk belajar antara para anggota organisasi dan mengembangkan pekerja diperkaya dan lebih mampu, yang pada gilirannya, dapat meningkatkan daya saing organisasi dan efektivitas internasional. Sementara serupa dalam tujuan, tujuan spesifik ITAs dan IDAs, pada kenyataannya, berbeda. Secara umum istilah, ITAs fokus pada kompetensi yang dibutuhkan untuk melakukan lebih efektif pada satu pekerjaan saat ini. Dengan kata lain, ITAs cenderung berorientasi memecahkan jangka pendek masalah kinerja. Sebaliknya, IDAs merujuk pada akuisisi kompetensi yang dibutuhkan untuk melakukan beberapa pekerjaan masa depan. Hal ini, namun, penting untuk dicatat bahwa kegiatan tertentu seperti pelatihan lintas budaya dapat digunakan untuk baik untuk pelatihan tujuan (misalnya, Earley, 1997) dan untuk keperluan perkembangan (misalnya, Lievens, Harris, Van Keer & Bisqueret, 2003). Beberapa berbagai pelatihan dan pengembangan internasional kegiatan yang tercantum di bawah ini.• Pelatihan lintas budaya (khusus dan umum)-yang paling diteliti dan paling digunakan dalam praktek, bila digunakan sebagai ITA, tujuan dari pelatihan lintas budaya adalah untuk meningkatkan pengetahuan Antarbudaya khusus pengalihan internasional dari negara tertentu. Ketika (meskipun, kurang umum) digunakan sebagai IDA, pelatihan lintas budaya akan ditujukan untuk individu yang harus bekerja di berbagai konteks budaya – tanpa konteks budaya apapun satu dalam pikiran.• Predeparture orientasi Antarbudaya – sebagai ITA, tujuan langsung lintas budaya orientasi adalah untuk membantu internasional diberi tugas belajar dasar-dasar (misalnya, mata uang, transportasi umum, jam kerja) untuk nyaman tinggal dan bekerja di negara tuan rumah.• Keragaman pelatihan-tergantung pada kedekatan kebutuhan, keragaman pelatihan dapat berupa ITA atau IDA. Tujuan dari pelatihan keragaman adalah untuk meningkatkan kemampuan seseorang untuk memahami dan menghargai berbagai perspektif budaya.• Pelatihan bahasa - tergantung pada kedekatan perlunya kefasihan dalam bahasa lain, pelatihan bahasa dapat berupa ITA atau IDA – namun dalam prakteknya paling sering ditawarkan ketika diberi tugas internasional akan pindah ke suatu negara di mana bahasa berbeda keterampilan yang diperlukan. Kadang-kadang, organisasi menawarkan pelatihan bahasa dalam bahasa perusahaan untuk semua orang yang tertarik. Dalam kasus ini, pelatihan bahasa mungkin melihat lebih perkembangannya.• Pendidikan tradisional dalam manajemen internasional-Universitas atau program pelatihan khusus sering ditawarkan sebagai bagian dari rencana perkembangan lebih besar dan karena itu lebih cenderung menjadi ITA. Tujuan dari program tradisional adalah untuk meningkatkan ketajaman bisnis internasional dan pengetahuan.• Pelatihan lintas atau Mentoring – umumnya dipandang sebagai IDA, lintas pelatih dan mentor bantuan internasional assignees membangun budaya kesadaran, bekerja pada budaya "-bintik buta dan membantu mengembangkan kompetensi untuk menjadi efektif dalam lingkungan internasional. Kadang-kadang, pelatih lintas ditugaskan untuk tugas tertentu (misalnya, memberikan pidato penting di negara lain, negosiasi usaha bersama internasional) dan, dalam kasus tersebut, akan kemudian dianggap lebih dari ITA.• Pengalaman budaya pencelupan - umumnya dipandang sebagai IDA, tujuan pencelupan adalah – pengalaman yang agak cepat-menghasilkan kejutan budaya untuk tujuan pembangunan untuk meningkatkan kemampuan seseorang untuk mengenali dan menghargai berbagai perspektif budaya.• Tim Global lintas-perbatasan (dengan wawancara) – baik ITA dan IDA, individu debriefed setelah pengalaman tim multikultural (misalnya, pertemuan) untuk menerima umpan balik, dan mudah-mudahan meningkatkan kemampuan mereka, tentang bagaimana menjadi pemimpin yang lebih baik, anggota tim, dll dalam konteks multikultural. Umpan balik adalah ITA untuk tim segera dan IDA pengembangan keterampilan jangka panjang.• Internasional tugas-tugas internasional dapat menjadi sarana yang orang mengembangkan kompetensi Antarbudaya – dan hasil yang lebih segera-fokus ITAs berharap untuk mempengaruhi. Dalam konteks pembangunan, sebagai IDA, tinggal dan bekerja di negara lain mungkin memiliki efek jangka panjang pada kompetensi lintas individu. Percaya kepada kuasa perkembangan mereka, banyak perusahaan Lihat sukses internasional tugas sebagai indikator lintas kompetensi. Kami mendorong riset masa depan untuk menyelidiki berbagai ITAs dan IDAs dengan tujuan spesifik dalam pikiran. Penelitian, sampai saat ini, telah overgeneralized hasil jangka pendek dan jangka panjang intervensi pelatihan dan pengembangan ini beragam. Penyelidikan berbagai intervensi, relatif jangka pendek dan jangka panjang tujuan akan membantu organisasi lebih memahami implikasi dari kegiatan di mana mereka terlibat. Dalam beberapa kasus, keuntungan jangka panjang mungkin hadir sebagai akibat langsung dari intervensi jangka pendek (misalnya, kursus bahasa memberikan individu beberapa paparan budaya dan apresiasi). Perhatian, bagaimanapun, adalah bahwa sebaliknya juga mungkin terjadi – bahwa intervensi jangka panjang (seperti rotasi tugas internasional) mungkin memiliki hanya keuntungan jangka pendek. Dalam hal suatu tugas internasional, keprihatinan ini menunjukkan bahwa seorang individu telah belajar untuk menjadi orang yang kompeten dalam satu budaya tertentu, tetapi tidak telah mengembangkan kompetensi setiap internasional yang bisa menggeneralisasi untuk konteks lintas-perbatasan lain. Ini adalah area terbuka, dan sangat penting, untuk penyelidikan ilmiah.

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