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Chapter Fourteen: Analysing discour
Chapter Fourteen: Analysing discourse
Q What is discourse?
For sociolinguists, the term discourse is generally used to refer to stretches of spoken or written language, which extend beyond an utterance or a sentence.
For philosophers, discourse is a broader term; it is regarded as a means of structuring knowledge and social practice, and language is just one symbolic form of discourse.
Q How is discourse viewed by pragmatics?
Pragmatics are concerned with the analysis of meaning in interaction, context is crucial in interpreting what is meant, and pragmatics extends the analysis of meaning beyond grammar and word meaning to the relationship between the participants and the background knowledge they bring to a situation, which is analysed in terms of conversation maxims and politeness.
Q What are conversation maxims?
Paul Grice formulated four maxims of cooperative talk:
1- Quantity: say as much as but no more than necessary
2- Quality: do not say what you believe to be false, or that for which you lack evidence
3- Relation: be relevant
4- Manner: be clear, unambiguous, brief and orderly
Q What are the politeness rules that Lakoff introduced?
1- Don't impose: use modals and hedges: I wonder if I might just open the window a little.
2- Give options: use interrogatives including tag questions: do you mind if I open the window? It would be nice to have the window open a little wouldn't it?
3- Be friendly: use informal expressions endearments: Be a honey and open the window darling.
Ethnography of speaking: or ethnography of communication, it is an approach developed by the sociolinguist Dell Hymes, for analysing language, which has been designed to heighten awareness of culture-bound assumptions.
* The frame work that Hymes developed for the analysis of communicative events involved the following components:
- Genre type of event: phone call, conversation, business meeting, etc.
- Topic of what people are talking about: holidays, sports, politics, etc.
- Purpose of function: the reason (s) for the talk.
- Setting: where the talk takes place.
- Key of emotional tongue: serious, jocular, sarcastic, etc.
- Participants: characteristics of those present and their relationship.
- Message form: code and/or channel (telephone, letter, email, etc).
- Message content: specific details of what the communication is about.
- Act sequence: ordering of speech acts.
- Rules for interaction: prescribed orders of speaking.
- Norms for interpretation: what is going on?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Interactional sociolinguistics: Interactional sociolinguists typically make use of the detailed tools of conversation analysis, by paying careful attention to turn-taking behavior, hesitations, pauses, and paralinguistic behavior (sights, laughter, in-breaths, etc) to interpret what the speaker intended.
Q What is Contextualisation cause?
In an interactional sociolinguistics perspective, features 'by which the speakers signal and listeners interpret what the activity is, how the semantic content is to be understood and how each sentence relates to what precedes or follows'.
Conversational analysis: CA researchers approach communication as a jointly organized activity like dancing, or cooperative musical. Discourse is conversation (talk) which has its own structure (openings, closings, overlaps, turn-taking, interruptions, etc.)
Critical Discourse Analysis: it is concerned with investigating how language is used to construct and maintain power relationships in society; the aim is to show up connections between language and power, and between language and ideology.
Q What is discourse?
For sociolinguists, the term discourse is generally used to refer to stretches of spoken or written language, which extend beyond an utterance or a sentence.
For philosophers, discourse is a broader term; it is regarded as a means of structuring knowledge and social practice, and language is just one symbolic form of discourse.
Q How is discourse viewed by pragmatics?
Pragmatics are concerned with the analysis of meaning in interaction, context is crucial in interpreting what is meant, and pragmatics extends the analysis of meaning beyond grammar and word meaning to the relationship between the participants and the background knowledge they bring to a situation, which is analysed in terms of conversation maxims and politeness.
Q What are conversation maxims?
Paul Grice formulated four maxims of cooperative talk:
1- Quantity: say as much as but no more than necessary
2- Quality: do not say what you believe to be false, or that for which you lack evidence
3- Relation: be relevant
4- Manner: be clear, unambiguous, brief and orderly
Q What are the politeness rules that Lakoff introduced?
1- Don't impose: use modals and hedges: I wonder if I might just open the window a little.
2- Give options: use interrogatives including tag questions: do you mind if I open the window? It would be nice to have the window open a little wouldn't it?
3- Be friendly: use informal expressions endearments: Be a honey and open the window darling.
Ethnography of speaking: or ethnography of communication, it is an approach developed by the sociolinguist Dell Hymes, for analysing language, which has been designed to heighten awareness of culture-bound assumptions.
* The frame work that Hymes developed for the analysis of communicative events involved the following components:
- Genre type of event: phone call, conversation, business meeting, etc.
- Topic of what people are talking about: holidays, sports, politics, etc.
- Purpose of function: the reason (s) for the talk.
- Setting: where the talk takes place.
- Key of emotional tongue: serious, jocular, sarcastic, etc.
- Participants: characteristics of those present and their relationship.
- Message form: code and/or channel (telephone, letter, email, etc).
- Message content: specific details of what the communication is about.
- Act sequence: ordering of speech acts.
- Rules for interaction: prescribed orders of speaking.
- Norms for interpretation: what is going on?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Interactional sociolinguistics: Interactional sociolinguists typically make use of the detailed tools of conversation analysis, by paying careful attention to turn-taking behavior, hesitations, pauses, and paralinguistic behavior (sights, laughter, in-breaths, etc) to interpret what the speaker intended.
Q What is Contextualisation cause?
In an interactional sociolinguistics perspective, features 'by which the speakers signal and listeners interpret what the activity is, how the semantic content is to be understood and how each sentence relates to what precedes or follows'.
Conversational analysis: CA researchers approach communication as a jointly organized activity like dancing, or cooperative musical. Discourse is conversation (talk) which has its own structure (openings, closings, overlaps, turn-taking, interruptions, etc.)
Critical Discourse Analysis: it is concerned with investigating how language is used to construct and maintain power relationships in society; the aim is to show up connections between language and power, and between language and ideology.
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Bab empat belas: Menganalisis wacanaQ Apakah wacana?Untuk sociolinguists, wacana istilah umumnya digunakan untuk merujuk kepada membentang dari bahasa lisan atau tertulis, yang melampaui satu ucapan atau kalimat. Untuk filsuf, wacana adalah istilah yang luas; Hal ini dianggap sebagai sarana untuk memberikan pengetahuan dan praktek sosial, dan bahasa adalah hanya salah satu bentuk simbolis wacana.Q bagaimana wacana dipandang oleh Pragmatika?Pragmatika bersangkutan dengan analisis makna dalam interaksi, konteks penting dalam menafsirkan maksud, dan Pragmatika meluas analisis makna luar tata bahasa dan makna kata hubungan antara peserta dan pengetahuan latar belakang yang mereka bawa ke situasi, yang dianalisis maxims percakapan dan kesopanan.Q Apakah percakapan suite?Paul Grice dirumuskan empat maxims bicara koperasi:1-kuantitas: mengatakan sebanyak tetapi tidak lebih dari yang diperlukan2-kualitas: tidak mengatakan apa yang Anda percaya untuk menjadi palsu, atau bahwa yang Anda tidak memiliki bukti3-hubungan: relevan4-cara: menjadi jelas, jelas, singkat, dan teratur Q Apakah aturan kesopanan yang diperkenalkan Lakoff?1 - tidak memaksakan: menggunakan modal dan hedges: Aku bertanya-tanya jika saya mungkin hanya membuka jendela sedikit.2-memberikan pilihan: menggunakan interrogatives termasuk tag pertanyaan: Apakah Anda keberatan jika saya membuka jendela? Itu akan menyenangkan untuk memiliki jendela yang terbuka sedikit bukan?3 - be ramah: menggunakan ekspresi informal percintaan: menjadi madu dan membuka jendela darling. Etnografi berbicara: atau etnograf komunikasi ini adalah sebuah pendekatan yang dikembangkan oleh sociolinguist Dell Hymes, untuk menganalisis bahasa, yang telah dirancang untuk meningkatkan kesadaran budaya-terikat asumsi.* Kerangka kerja yang Hymes dikembangkan untuk analisis komunikatif peristiwa terlibat komponen-komponen berikut:-Genre jenis acara: panggilan telepon, percakapan, pertemuan bisnis, dll.-Topik apa yang orang-orang berbicara tentang: liburan, olahraga, politik, dll.-Tujuan fungsi: alasan (s) untuk berbicara.-Pengaturan: mana pembicaraan berlangsung.-Kunci lidah emosional: serius, riang, sarkastik, dll.-Peserta: karakteristik yang hadir dan hubungan mereka.-Pesan bentuk: kode dan/atau saluran (telepon, Surat, email, dll).-Pesan konten: rincian spesifik tentang apa yang tentang komunikasi.-Bertindak urutan: memesan pidato tindakan.-Peraturan untuk interaksi: diresepkan pesanan berbicara.-Norma-norma untuk interpretasi: apa yang terjadi?………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Sosiolinguistik interaksi: interaksi sociolinguists biasanya membuat penggunaan alat rinci analisis percakapan, dengan hati-hati memperhatikan perilaku mengambil giliran, keragu-raguan, berhenti, dan perilaku paralinguistic (pemandangan, tawa, dalam napas, dll) untuk menafsirkan apa speaker dimaksudkan.Q Apakah penyebab Contextualisation?Dalam perspektif sosiolinguistik interaksi, memiliki 'yang sinyal pembicara dan pendengar menafsirkan apa aktivitas adalah, bagaimana konten semantik yang harus dipahami dan bagaimana setiap kalimat berkaitan dengan apa mendahului atau mengikuti'. Analisis percakapan: CA peneliti pendekatan komunikasi sebagai kegiatan bersama seperti menari, atau koperasi musik. Wacana adalah percakapan (bicara) yang memiliki struktur tersendiri (pembukaan, penutupan, tumpang tindih, mengambil giliran, gangguan, dll.) Analisis wacana kritis: itu adalah prihatin dengan menyelidiki bagaimana bahasa digunakan untuk membangun dan memelihara hubungan kekuasaan dalam masyarakat; Tujuannya adalah untuk muncul sambungan antara bahasa dan kekuasaan, dan antara bahasa dan ideologi.
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Chapter Fourteen: Analysing discourse
Q What is discourse?
For sociolinguists, the term discourse is generally used to refer to stretches of spoken or written language, which extend beyond an utterance or a sentence.
For philosophers, discourse is a broader term; it is regarded as a means of structuring knowledge and social practice, and language is just one symbolic form of discourse.
Q How is discourse viewed by pragmatics?
Pragmatics are concerned with the analysis of meaning in interaction, context is crucial in interpreting what is meant, and pragmatics extends the analysis of meaning beyond grammar and word meaning to the relationship between the participants and the background knowledge they bring to a situation, which is analysed in terms of conversation maxims and politeness.
Q What are conversation maxims?
Paul Grice formulated four maxims of cooperative talk:
1- Quantity: say as much as but no more than necessary
2- Quality: do not say what you believe to be false, or that for which you lack evidence
3- Relation: be relevant
4- Manner: be clear, unambiguous, brief and orderly
Q What are the politeness rules that Lakoff introduced?
1- Don't impose: use modals and hedges: I wonder if I might just open the window a little.
2- Give options: use interrogatives including tag questions: do you mind if I open the window? It would be nice to have the window open a little wouldn't it?
3- Be friendly: use informal expressions endearments: Be a honey and open the window darling.
Ethnography of speaking: or ethnography of communication, it is an approach developed by the sociolinguist Dell Hymes, for analysing language, which has been designed to heighten awareness of culture-bound assumptions.
* The frame work that Hymes developed for the analysis of communicative events involved the following components:
- Genre type of event: phone call, conversation, business meeting, etc.
- Topic of what people are talking about: holidays, sports, politics, etc.
- Purpose of function: the reason (s) for the talk.
- Setting: where the talk takes place.
- Key of emotional tongue: serious, jocular, sarcastic, etc.
- Participants: characteristics of those present and their relationship.
- Message form: code and/or channel (telephone, letter, email, etc).
- Message content: specific details of what the communication is about.
- Act sequence: ordering of speech acts.
- Rules for interaction: prescribed orders of speaking.
- Norms for interpretation: what is going on?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Interactional sociolinguistics: Interactional sociolinguists typically make use of the detailed tools of conversation analysis, by paying careful attention to turn-taking behavior, hesitations, pauses, and paralinguistic behavior (sights, laughter, in-breaths, etc) to interpret what the speaker intended.
Q What is Contextualisation cause?
In an interactional sociolinguistics perspective, features 'by which the speakers signal and listeners interpret what the activity is, how the semantic content is to be understood and how each sentence relates to what precedes or follows'.
Conversational analysis: CA researchers approach communication as a jointly organized activity like dancing, or cooperative musical. Discourse is conversation (talk) which has its own structure (openings, closings, overlaps, turn-taking, interruptions, etc.)
Critical Discourse Analysis: it is concerned with investigating how language is used to construct and maintain power relationships in society; the aim is to show up connections between language and power, and between language and ideology.
Q What is discourse?
For sociolinguists, the term discourse is generally used to refer to stretches of spoken or written language, which extend beyond an utterance or a sentence.
For philosophers, discourse is a broader term; it is regarded as a means of structuring knowledge and social practice, and language is just one symbolic form of discourse.
Q How is discourse viewed by pragmatics?
Pragmatics are concerned with the analysis of meaning in interaction, context is crucial in interpreting what is meant, and pragmatics extends the analysis of meaning beyond grammar and word meaning to the relationship between the participants and the background knowledge they bring to a situation, which is analysed in terms of conversation maxims and politeness.
Q What are conversation maxims?
Paul Grice formulated four maxims of cooperative talk:
1- Quantity: say as much as but no more than necessary
2- Quality: do not say what you believe to be false, or that for which you lack evidence
3- Relation: be relevant
4- Manner: be clear, unambiguous, brief and orderly
Q What are the politeness rules that Lakoff introduced?
1- Don't impose: use modals and hedges: I wonder if I might just open the window a little.
2- Give options: use interrogatives including tag questions: do you mind if I open the window? It would be nice to have the window open a little wouldn't it?
3- Be friendly: use informal expressions endearments: Be a honey and open the window darling.
Ethnography of speaking: or ethnography of communication, it is an approach developed by the sociolinguist Dell Hymes, for analysing language, which has been designed to heighten awareness of culture-bound assumptions.
* The frame work that Hymes developed for the analysis of communicative events involved the following components:
- Genre type of event: phone call, conversation, business meeting, etc.
- Topic of what people are talking about: holidays, sports, politics, etc.
- Purpose of function: the reason (s) for the talk.
- Setting: where the talk takes place.
- Key of emotional tongue: serious, jocular, sarcastic, etc.
- Participants: characteristics of those present and their relationship.
- Message form: code and/or channel (telephone, letter, email, etc).
- Message content: specific details of what the communication is about.
- Act sequence: ordering of speech acts.
- Rules for interaction: prescribed orders of speaking.
- Norms for interpretation: what is going on?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Interactional sociolinguistics: Interactional sociolinguists typically make use of the detailed tools of conversation analysis, by paying careful attention to turn-taking behavior, hesitations, pauses, and paralinguistic behavior (sights, laughter, in-breaths, etc) to interpret what the speaker intended.
Q What is Contextualisation cause?
In an interactional sociolinguistics perspective, features 'by which the speakers signal and listeners interpret what the activity is, how the semantic content is to be understood and how each sentence relates to what precedes or follows'.
Conversational analysis: CA researchers approach communication as a jointly organized activity like dancing, or cooperative musical. Discourse is conversation (talk) which has its own structure (openings, closings, overlaps, turn-taking, interruptions, etc.)
Critical Discourse Analysis: it is concerned with investigating how language is used to construct and maintain power relationships in society; the aim is to show up connections between language and power, and between language and ideology.
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